PORK 
PRODUCTION 


SMITH 


The  Rural  Science  Series 

L.H.  Bailev  Editor 


iAIN   L  5  S2R  A  PY- AGRICULTURE  DF.F"  r 


Stije  Eural  Science  Series 

EDITED  BY  L.  H.  BAILEY 


PORK-PRODUCTION 


EJje  Hurai  Science  Series 

EDITED  BY  L.  H.  BAILEY 

THE  SOIL.     King. 

THE  SPRAYING  OF  PLANTS.     Lodeman. 

MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS.    Wing.   Enlarged  and  Revised. 

THE  FERTILITY  OF  THE  LAND.     Roberts. 

THE     PRINCIPLES    OF    FRUIT-GROWING.     Bailey.     20th 

Edition,  Revised. 
BUSH-FRUITS.     Card.     Revised. 
FERTILIZERS.     Voorhees.     Revised. 
THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE.     Bailey.     Revised. 
IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINAGE.     King. 
THE  FARMSTEAD.     Roberts. 
RURAL  WEALTH  AND  WELFARE.     Fairchild. 
THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  VEGETABLE-GARDENING.   Bailey. 
FARM  POULTRY.    Watson.    Enlarged  and  Revised. 
THE    FEEDING    OF   ANIMALS.       Jordan.       (Now   Rural 

Text-Book  Series.     Revised.} 
THE  FARMER'S  BUSINESS  HANDBOOK.     Roberts. 
THE  DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS.     Mayo. 
THE  HORSE.     Roberts. 
How  TO  CHOOSE  A  FARM.     Hunt. 
FORAGE  CROPS.     Voorhees. 

BACTERIA  IN  RELATION  TO  COUNTRY  LIFE.     Lipman. 
THE    NURSERY-BOOK.      Bailey.      (Now    Rural    Manual 

Series.) 

PLANT-BREEDING.     Bailey  and  Gilbert.     Revised. 
THE  FORCING-BOOK.     Bailey. 

THE  PRUNING-BOOK.  Bailey.  (Now  Rural  Manual  Series.) 
FRUIT-GROWING  IN  ARID  REGIONS.  Paddock  and  Whipple. 
RURAL  HYGIENE.     Ogden. 
DRY-FARMING.     Widtsoe. 
LAW  FOR  THE  AMERICAN  FARMER.     Green. 
FARM  BOYS  AND  GIRLS.     McKeever. 
THE  TRAINING  AND  BREAKING  OF  HORSES.     Harper. 
SHEEP-FARMING  IN  NORTH  AMERICA.     Craig. 
COOPERATION  IN  AGRICULTURE.     Powell. 
THE  FARM  WOODLOT.     Cheyney  and  Wentling. 
HOUSEHOLD  INSECTS.     Herrick. 
CITRUS  FRUITS.     Coit. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  RURAL  CREDITS.     Morman. 
BEEKEEPING.     Phillips. 

SUBTROPICAL  VEGETABLE-GARDENING.     Rolfs. 
TURF  FOR  GOLF  COURSES.     Piper  and  Oakley. 
THE  POTATO.     Gilbert. 
STRAWBERRY-GROWING.     Fletcher. 
WESTERN  LIVE-STOCK  MANAGEMENT.     Potter. 
PEACH-GROWING.     Gould. 
THE  SUGAR-BEET  IN  AMERICA.     Harris. 
PORK-PRODUCTION.     Smith. 


PORK-PRODUCTION 


BY 


WILLIAM   W.   SMITH,   M.S. A. 

ASSOCIATE  PROFESSOR  OF  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 
PURDUE  UNIVERSITY 


WITH  A  CHAPTER  ON 

THE  PREVENTION  OF  HOG  DISEASES 

BY 

E.   A.   CRAIG,   D.V.M. 

PROFESSOR  OP  VETERINARY  SCIENCE,    PURDTTE  UNIVERSITY 
AND   CHIEF  VETERINARIAN,   PURDUE  AGRICUL- 
TURAL EXPERIMENT  STATION 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 
1923 

All  rights  reserved 


COPTBIOHT,  1920, 

BY  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.    Published  June,  1920, 
MAIN  LtBWAKY-Anmo'H  Ti  JRE  DCPT. 


J.  S.  Gushing  Co.  —Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

THE  material  in  this  book  has  been  drawn  from  three 
sources :  from  practical  experience ;  experimental  studies, 
particularly  of  feeding  questions;  and  the  results  of  re- 
search in  the  field  of  chemistry  and  biology.  The  dis- 
cussion on  general  care  and  herd  management  is  chiefly  a 
statement  of  the  methods  that  have  proved  most  suc- 
cessful in  practical  experience.  That  part  of  the  book 
dealing  with  questions  of  feeding  is  largely  the  result  of 
a  careful  analysis  and  summary  of  the  mass  of  experi- 
mental data  available  on  this  subject.  The  discussion 
of  breeding  problems  has  for  its  foundation  the  approved 
methods  of  the  constructive  breeders  and  the  important 
facts  recently  discovered  in  the  field  of  genetics  which 
have  a  bearing  on  the  practical  questions  related  to 
animal  breeding. 

In  its  preparation  the  author  has  sought  and  received' 
many  facts  and  suggestions  from  hog  men,  commission 
salesmen,  experiment  station  workers,  packing-house 
officials,  and  animal  husbandry  teachers,  without  which 
the  book  in  its  present  form  would  not  have  been  possible. 
For  the  help  thus  received  he  wishes  to  express  grateful 
acknowledgment.  For  much  of  the  data  presented  in 
chapter  five  he  is  indebted  to  W.  J.  Carmichael  formerly 
of  Illinois  University  and  now  secretary  of  the  National 
Swine  Growers  Association.  To  the  members  of  the 
Animal  Husbandry  staff  of  Purdue  University  he  wishes 
to  express  his  appreciation  of  their  kindly  criticisms, 
encouragement,  and  help. 

W.  W.  SMITH 

PURDUE  UNIVERSITY, 
January  1,  1920 

V 


553066 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   I 

PAGES 

GENERAL  VIEW 1-9 

CHAPTER  II 

FEEDING  AND  HANDLING  THE  HERD  IN  THE  BREEDING 

SEASON 10-32 

Feeding  the  sows        .......  10-14 

Rations 11-13 

Amount  to  feed           .......  13-14 

Feeding  the  boar 14-17 

Demands     ........  14-15 

Rations 15-16 

Amount  to  feed 16 

Exercise 16-17 

General  considerations 17-23 

Length  of  gestation  period 18-19 

Age  to  breed  the  gilt 19-20 

Using  the  young  boar 20-21 

Early  or  late  pigs 21-23 

Mating 23-32 

Systems 23-25 

Time  in  the  day  to  breed  the  sows      ...  25 

The  breeding-crate 25-26 

Number  of  sows  which  the  boar  can  breed           .  26-28 

Records 28-32 

CHAPTER   III 

THE    MANAGEMENT   AND    FEEDING   OF   THE    BREEDING 

HERD  IN  THE  WINTER         ....  33-68 

General  management 33-38 

Housing 33-35 

vii 


viii  Table  of  Contents 

PAGES 

Sanitation 36 

Water 37 

Exercise 37-38 

Feeding  pregnant  sows  and  gilts         ....  39-63 

Demands 39-40 

Corn  alone  as  a  feed  for  pregnant  sows        .         .  40-43 

Other  grains  for  pregnant  sows   ....  43-44 

Value  of  legume  hays  for  pregnant  sows      .         .  44-46 

Methods  of  feeding  alfalfa  hay    ....  46-50 

Methods  of  balancing  corn  for  pregnant  gilts      .  50-52 

Other  protein  supplements 52-53 

The  value  of  succulence       .....  53-54 

Conclusions          .......  54-58 

Amount  to  feed 58-62 

Preparation  of  feeds  and  methods  of  feeding       .  62-63 

Feeding  the  mature  boar    ......  64 

Feeding  the  open  gilts  and  young  boars     .         .         .  64-65 

The  feed  cost  of  wintering  pregnant  sows  .         .         .  65-68 

CHAPTER  IV 

CARE  AND  FEEDING  OF  THE  Sow  AND  LITTER        .         .  69-95 

Care  during  the  farrowing  season       ....  69-80 

Preliminary  care  and  feeding       ....  71-72 

Care  at  farrowing  time        .....  72-73 

Needle  teeth        .         .         .         .         .         .         .  74 

Feeding  just  after  farrowing        ....  74-75 

Pig-eaters 75-76 

Sanitation  and  exercise 76 

Marking  the  litters 76-80 

Feeding  and  care  to  weaning  time      ....  80-89 

Feeding 81-83 

The  pig-creep 83-84 

Scours 84-85 

Weaning 85-86 

Gains  made  by  pigs  from  birth  to  weaning          .  86-88 

Castration 88-89 

Culling  out  the  unproductive  sows     ....  89-90 

Herd  records  90-91 


Table  of  Contents 


IX 


The  cost  of  feeding  the  sow  and  litter  from  farrow- 
ing to  weaning  time 


91-95 


CHAPTER  V 

SIZE  OF  LITTERS;   BIRTH  WEIGHT  OF  PIGS;  MILK-FLOW 

OF  Sows      . 96-116 

Size  of  litters 96-107 

Age  of  sow 96-100 

Feeding  and  condition  of  the  sow        .         .         .  100-101 

Cross-breeding 101-102 

Influence  of  the  boar 102-103 

Type,  breed,  individuality 104-105 

The  number  of  pigs  raised 105-107 

Birth  weight  of  pigs 107-113 

Sex 107-108 

Age  of  sow 108-110 

Cross-breeding 110 

Size  of  litter Ill 

Vigor  of  sow  and  boar  at  breeding  time       .         .  111-112 

Nutrition     .                  112-113 

Milk  production  of  sows 113-116 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE    SUMMER    FEEDING    AND    MANAGEMENT    OF    THE 

BREEDING  HERD 117-127 

Feeding  and  management  of  the  pregnant  sows          .  117-122 

Number  of  litters  in  a  year          ....  117-119 

Feeding  and  management 119-122 

Feeding  and  management  of  the  open  sows        .         .  122-124 

Fattening  the  culls       ......  122 

Feeding  and  management  of  the  open  brood  sows  123 
Feeding  the  yearling  sows   .         .         .         .         .124 

Cost  of  summer  feeding  sows 124-127 

Bred  sows   . 124-126 

Open  mature  sows       ......  126-127 

Open  yearling  sows 127 


Table  of  Contents 


CHAPTER  VII 

PAGES 

FEEDING  AND  CARE  OP  GROWING  AND  FATTENING  PIGS  128-152 

The  weight  and  type  of  pig  desired  by  the  market     .  128-130 

General  systems  of  handling  and  feeding    .         .         .  130-132 

Food  demands  of  the  growing  and  fattening  pig         .  132 

Corn  as  a  pig  feed 133-141 

Experiments  demonstrating  the  deficiencies  of 
corn  alone  as  a  feed  for  growing  and  fatten- 
ing pigs  133-141 

The  advantages  of  forage  crops  ....  141-152 

Dry  lot  versus  forage  feeding       ....  141-146 
Feeding  skim-milk  on  forage        .         .         .         .146 

Corn  alone  versus  corn  and  forage        .         .         .  147-148 

Summary  of  benefits  from  growing  forage  crops  .  148-152 


CHAPTER  VIII 

CHOOSING  A  FORAGE  CROP:     EXPERIMENTAL  FEEDING 

TRIALS 153-193 

Essentials  of  an  ideal  forage        ....  153-154 

Medium  red  clover     .......  154-157 

Clover  versus  alfalfa 155-156 

Clover  versus  rape        ......  156-157 

Other  clovers 157-158 

Alfalfa 159-162 

Alfalfa  versus  rape       ......  159-161 

Alfalfa  versus  sweet  clover  .....  161-162 

Dwarf  Essex  rape 162-166 

Early  versus  late  rape  and  other  forages      .         .  164-165 

Winter  rape         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  165-166 

Combinations :  Canadian  field  peas,  oats,  clover,  rape  166-170 

Forage  mixtures  for  fall  pigs        ....  167-169 

Oats  versus  other  forages     .....  169-170 

Rye* 170-174 

Rye  as  a  winter  forage 171-172 

"Hogging-down"  ripe  rye 172-174 

Blue-grass:  timothy  .         .         .         .         .         .         .  174-177 

Blue-grass  and  timothy  versus  clover  and  alfalfa  175-177 


Table  of  Contents 


XI 


Sorghum-cane    ...... 

Soybeans    

Limited  versus  full  feeding  on  soybeans 

Soybeans  versus  rape  .... 
Cowpeas     ....... 

Cowpeas  versus  dry  lot 
Peanuts ;  velvet  bean ;  chuf as    . 

Peanut  forage  versus  dry  lot 
Recommendations  for  forage  crop  plantings 


PAGES 

177-178 

178-182 
180-181 
181-182 
182-185 
183-185 
185-188 
186-188 
189-193 


CHAPTER  IX 

METHODS  OF  FEEDING  ON  FORAGE          ....  194-227 

The  composition  of  forage  crops         ....  194-195 

Experimental  feeding  trials 195-208 

Supplements  for  pigs  on  rape      ....  198-200 

Amount  of  supplements  on  alfalfa       .         .         .  200-202 

Supplements  for  pigs  on  winter  rye     .         .         .  202-203 

Supplements  for  pigs  on  timothy  and  blue-grass  203-205 

Corn  alone  on  clover  ......  205-206 

Oats,  Canadian  field  peas,  and  rape    .         .         .  206 

General  summary 207-208 

Feeding  a  grain  ration  to  pigs  on  forage     .         .         .  208-222 

Pigs  intended  for  market 209-220 

Rate  and  cost  of  gains  during  forage  season  210-212 
Rate  and  cost  of  gains  during  the  entire 

breeding  period •  212-216 

Time  of  marketing  as  affected  by  system 

of  feeding 216-217 

Summary  and  conclusions    ....  217-220 

Pigs  intended  for  the  breeding  herd    .         .         .  220-222 

Possible  dangers  from  full  feeding         .         .  220 

Conditions  which  affect  the  problem    .         .  220-221 

Summary  and  conclusion      ....  221-222 

General  management  of  the  pigs  in  the  summer         .  223-225 

Sanitation 223 

Ringing 223-224 

Shade  and  water                                                    .  224-225 


Xll 


Table  of  Contents 


Feed  cost  of  raising  the  pig  to  market  weight  or 

breeding  age          .....  225-227 

CHAPTER  X 

HOGGING-DOWN  CORN 228-238 

"Hogging-down"  versus  yard  feeding          .         .         .  228-231 

Supplemental  forage  crops 231-236 

Field  management 236-238 

CHAPTER  XI 

FATTENING  PIGS  IN  THE  DRY  LOT  (THE  USE  OF  NITROGE- 
NOUS OR  PROTEIN  SUPPLEMENTS)        .        .  239-279 

Dairy  by-products 240-254 

Buttermilk  versus  skim-milk        ....  244-245 
Skim-milk  and  buttermilk  versus  other  supple- 
ments    245-248 

Skim-milk  or  buttermilk  versus  tankage       .         .  248-249 

Whey 249-252 

Precautions  in  feeding  dairy  products          .         .  252-254 

Packing-house  by-products 254-264 

Corn  alone  versus  corn  and  tankage    .         .         .  256-258 
Tankage  versus  linseed-oil  meal  ....  258-259 
Tankage  versus  wheat  shorts  or  middlings  .         .  259-260 
Corn  and  tankage  versus  corn,  shorts,  and  tank- 
age         261-262 

Tankage  versus  soybean  meal      ....  262-263 

Summary 263-264 

Linseed-oil  meal 264-270 

Linseed-oil  meal  versus  tankage  ....  266-267 

Linseed-oil  meal  versus  wheat  shorts  or  middlings  267-269 
Linseed-oil  meal  versus  soybean   meal  (ground 

soybeans) 269 

Summary 269-270 

By-products  from  the  manufacture  of  wheat  flour      .  270-276 
Shorts  or  middlings  versus  skim-milk  or  butter- 
milk   274-275 

Summary    ........  275-276 

General  summary 276-279 


Table  of  Contents 


xin 


CHAPTER  XII 

PAGES 

OTHER  CEREAL  GRAINS  FOR  GROWING  AND  FATTENING 

PIGS 280-299 

Barley 281-285 

Barley  versus  corn 281-283 

Barley  rations  for  bacon-production    .        .        .  283-285 

Wheat 285-291 

Wheat  versus  corn 285-287 

Wheat  versus  one-half  wheat  and  one-half  corn  287-288 
Dry  whole  wheat  versus  soaked  whole  wheat        .  288-289 
Soaked  whole  wheat  versus  ground  whole  wheat  289-290 
Wheat  alone  versus  wheat  and  a  protein  supple- 
ment   ........  290 

Frosted  versus  sound  wheat          ....  290-291 

Rye 291-293 

Oats 293-296 

Oats  versus  corn 294-296 

Kafir,  milo,  cane 296-299 

Kafir  versus  corn  .        .        .  296-299 


CHAPTER  XIII 

CORN  SUBSTITUTES  AND  OTHER  BY-PRODUCTS  FOR  GROW- 
ING AND  FATTENING  PIGS 
Corn  by-products 

Hominy  feed 

Corn  feed  meal 

Corn  germ  meal 

Corn  gluten  meal  and  corn  gluten  feed 
Peanuts 

Peanut  oil  meal  as  a  supplement  to  milo     . 

Peanut  meal  versus  linseed-oil  meal  versus  tank- 


age        

Rice  products 

Rice  bran  and  rice  polish  versus  corn  . 

Rice  bran  versus  peanuts  and  corn 
Cowpeas  and  soybeans       .... 

Cowpeas  versus  corn    .... 

Corn  alone  versus  corn  and  soybeans  . 


300-332 
300-309 
300-303 
303-304 
304-307 
307-309 
309-312 
309-310 

311-312 
312-315 
312-313 
313-315 
315-317 
315-317 
317 


XIV 


Table  of  Contents 


Cottonseed  meal 

Dried  distillers'  and  brewers'  grains 

Molasses 

Roots:  tubers    .... 

Sweet  potatoes    . 

Potatoes      .... 

Other  roots 
Condimental  stock  foods    . 

Experimental  feeding  trials 

Medicinal  properties   . 

Effect  on  digestion 

Conclusions 


PAGES 

317-319 

319 

319-321 

321-326 

323-324 

325-326 

326 

327-332 

327-329 

329-331 

331 

332 


CHAPTER  XIV 

PREPARATION  OP  FEEDS  AND  METHODS  OF  FEEDING      .  333-349 

Corn 333-341 

Grinding  corn 333-334 

Soaking  and  grinding  corn 335-336 

Ear-corn  versus  shelled  corn  versus  ground  corn  336-338 

General  average  results  from  grinding          .         .  338-339 
Value  of  grinding  as  affected  by  age  and  finish 

of  pigs 339-340 

General  conclusions 340-341 

Small  grains 341-343 

Grinding  and  soaking 341-342 

Cooking 342 

Proportion  of  water  in  slop           ....  342-343 

Methods  of  feeding 343-349 

Hand-feeding 343-344 

The  self-feeder 344-345 

Self-feeding  versus  hand-feeding          .         .         .  346-348 

Summary  and  conclusions  .         .  348-349 


CHAPTER  XV 


THE  COST  OF  PRODUCING  PORK 
General  observations 


350-361 
359-361 


Table  of  Contents 


xv 


CHAPTER  XVI 

PAGES 

MARKETING  AND  MARKETS 362-390 

Marketing 362-368 

Shipping 363-366 

Selling 366-367 

Costs  of  marketing 367-368 

Shipping  hogs  by  motor  truck 368 

Market  classes 368-376 

Prime  heavy  hogs 370 

Butcher  hogs 370-371 

Packing  hogs 371-372 

Light  hogs 372-373 

Pigs 373-374 

Roughs 374 

Stags 374-375 

Boars 375 

Miscellaneous  classes 375-376 

Supply  and  price  fluctuations  and  their  usual  causes  376-390 

Monthly  variations  in  the  supply         .         .         .  377-381 

Variations  in  the  daily  supply     ....  381-382 

Variations  in  the  yearly  supply  ....  382-383 

Weight  as  a  factor  in  supply        ....  384-386 

Seasonal  variations  in  price          ....  386-388 

Yearly  variations  in  price 388-390 


CHAPTER  XVII 

JUDGING  391-419 

Types  of  hogs 392 

Judging  the  finished  fat  barrow  of  the  lard  type         .  393-401 

Market  requirements 393-395 

The  score-card 395-401 

Judging  the  finished  barrow  of  the  bacon  type  .         .  401-405 

Market  requirements 401-403 

Score-card  for  bacon  hogs 403-405 

Judging  breeding  hogs  of  the  lard  type       .         .         .  406-409 

The  breeder's  requirements          ....  406 

A  standard  of  excellence  406-409 


XVI 


Table  of  Contents 


Important  general  points  in  judging  . 

Size .        . 

Form 

Feet  and  legs       .... 

Condition 

Quality 

Sex  characteristics  and  disposition 

Breed  type  characteristics  . 
Judging  gilts  and  young  boars  . 
Judging  feeders 


PAGES 

409-416 

409-410 

410-412 

412 

413 

413-414 

414-415 

415-416 

416-417 

417-419 


CHAPTER  XVIII 


BREEDS  OF  HOGS 

The  Poland-China      . 
The  Duroc-Jersey 
The  Hampshire  . 
The  Berkshire    . 
The  Chester-White     . 
The  Spotted  Poland-China 
The  Large  Yorkshire 
The  Tamworth  . 


420-430 

421-422 

423 

423-424 

424-426 

426-427 

427-428 

428^29 

429-430 


CHAPTER  XIX 

BREEDING 

The  law  of  heredity 

The  process  of  reproduction 

"  Like  begets  like  "       .... 

Variations 

Prepotency          ..... 

Relative  influence  of  the  sire  and  dam 
Systems  of  breeding 

Up-grading          ..... 

Cross-breeding     ..... 

In-breeding 

Principles  in  the  selection  of  breeding  stock 

Individuality 


431-457 

431-441 

431-433 

433-434 

434-439 

440 

440-441 

441^49 

441-443 

443-445 

445-449 

449-453 

450-451 


Table  of  Contents 


xvn 


Pedigree 

Performance        ...... 

Fundamental  ideals  in  breed  or  herd  improvement 


PAGES 

451-453 
453 

454-457 


CHAPTER  XX 

THE  PREVENTION  OF  HOG  DISEASES       ....  458-482 

Relation  of  sanitation  to  disease         ....  458—462 

Disinfection  of  hog-houses  and  yards  .         .         .  461-462 

Relation  of  quarantine  laws  to  disease        .         .         .  462-463 

Diseases  of  the  digestive  system         ....  463-468 

Stomatitis  or  sore  mouth     .....  463-466 

G astro-enteritis  or  inflammation  of  stomach  and 

intestines 466-467 

Diarrhea  or  scours  in  pigs 467-468 

Diseases  of  the  respiratory  organs       ....  468-469 

Diseases  of  the  nervous  system 470-471 

Partial  or  complete  paralysis  of  the  posterior 

portion  of  the  body 470-471 

Spasm  of  the  diaphragm  or  thumps     .         .         .471 

Castration 471-473 

Parasites  of  hogs 473-476 

Infectious  diseases      .......  477-482 

Hog  cholera 477-481 

Tuberculosis  481-482 


LIST  OF  PLATES 

I.     Suitable  conditions  for  the  breeding  boar     .        Frontispiece 

TO   FACE  PAGE 

II.     Pregnant  sows  should  have  range  during  the  winter; 

a  practical  method  of  feeding  alfalfa  hay  ...      40 

III.  Three  gilts,  litter  mates ;     weights   at  six  months  — 

170,  185,  and  250  pounds.     The  evidence  of  good 
management  and  the  promise  of  profits     ...       98 

IV.  A  visible  demonstration  of  the  deficiencies  of  corn 

alone  for  growing  and  fattening  pigs ;    a  big  smooth 
gilt  with  only  two  pairs  of  good  teats,  an  expensive 

luxury 150 

V.     Sows  and  pigs  on  alfalfa ;   pigs  in  clover ;   pigs  in  rape     200 
VI.     Hogging-down  corn  and  soybeans         ....     240 
VII.     Pigs  on  the  self-feeder;      a  practical  convenience  in 

hand-feeding 270 

VIII.     Champion  pen  Duroc- Jersey   barrows;     carcass  of  a 
model  bacon  hog;    Number  1  Wiltshire  side;    pork 

cuts,  lard  hog 310 

IX.     Location  of  wholesale  cuts  of  lard  hog ;   points  of  the 

hog 350 

X.  Representatives  of  the  different  breeds.  Berkshire 
sow ;  a  champion  Hampshire  sow ;  a  champion 
Duroc- Jersey  sow ;  Chester- White  boar  .  .  .  390 
XI.  Representatives  of  the  different  breeds.  Poland-China 
boar;  a  champion  large  Yorkshire  sow;  spotted 
Poland-China  sow ;  Tamworth  sow  ....  440 
XII.  Litter  of  pigs  containing  a  reversion  in  color,  the  product 
of  mating  Berkshire- Yorkshire  parents;  Poland- 
China  sow  with  litter  of  pigs  by  a  Yorkshire  boar ; 
Berkshire  sow  with  litter  of  pigs  by  a  Duroc-Jersey 
boar  .  .  470 


PORK    PRODUCTION 


CHAPTER   I 
GENERAL   VIEW 

THE  important  position  which  the  hog  occupies  on  the 
American  farm  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  37  per  cent  of 
the  world's  supply  of  pork  (not  including  China)  is  pro- 
duced in  the  United  States.  More  hogs  are  raised  in 
this  country  than  in  any  other  three  countries  combined, 
and  more  than  double  the  number  than  in  any  other  single 
country. 

Swine  are  usually  most  numerous  in  those  countries  in 
which  the  population  is  relatively  dense.  Their  geographic 
distribution  in  the  United  States  is  most  closely  related 
to  the  distribution  of  the  acreage  of  Indian  corn.  In  the 
European  countries  the  number  follows  closely  the  pro- 
duction of  potatoes  and  the  number  of  dairy  cows.1  For 
statistics  on  the  distribution  of  swine,  see  Figs.  1  and  2. 

Hogs  are  raised  in  every  county  of  the  United  States, 
but  about  one-half  is  produced  in  the  seven  corn-belt 
states,  Iowa,  Illinois,  Missouri,  Nebraska,  Kansas,  Indiana, 
and  Ohio.  North  of  the  corn-belt  proper  and  in  the 
eastern  states,  the  number  of  hogs  is  largely  conditioned 
on  home  consumption  needs  and  the  development  of  the 
dairy  industry.  In  these  districts,  barley  and  mill  feeds 

1  "  Geography  of  the  World's  Agriculture,"  1917,  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr.,  Off.  Farm  Management. 

B  1 


2  Pork  Production 


General  View  3 

with  skim-milk,  buttermilk,  and  whey  constitute  the  chief 
feeds.  Large  feeding  plants  which  depend  chiefly  on 
garbage  collected  from  the  large  cities  are  an  important 
recent  development  in  the  East.  Few  hogs  are  raised  in 
the  arid  plains  region  of  the  West  because  the  simple 
digestive  apparatus  of  the  pig  is  not  adapted  to  the  con- 
sumption of  bulky  feeds  alone.  Not  enough  hogs  are 
produced  here  to  supply  the  demand  for  pork  products. 
The  production  in  the  South  has  not  yet  reached  a  point 
where  home  needs  are  supplied ;  but  with  the  necessity 
of  adopting  a  more  diversified  system  of  management  to 
maintain  production,  the  cotton  farmer  promises  to  use 
his  great  natural  advantages  to  increase  the  number  of 
hogs. 

Pork  production  is  an  essential  part  of  practically  every 
type  of  farming  in  America.  Even  in  districts  which  are 
exclusively  grain-growing,  the  hog  performs  the  important 
function  of  saving  the  wastes  of  the  grain  fields  and  in 
utilizing  the  offal  from  the  kitchen  and  milk-room,  as  well 
as  in  supplying  the  home  demand  for  fresh  and  cured  pork 
products.  The  average  general  farm  is  never  without 
some  hogs  for  the  same  reasons.  Dairy-farming  cannot 
be  conducted  along  the  most  efficient  and  profitable  lines 
without  a  sufficient  number  of  hogs  to  utilize  the  skim- 
milk,  buttermilk,  or  whey  which  may  be  available  for 
feeding,  and  the  undigested  grain  in  the  dropping  of  the 
cows.  It  is  doubtful  whether  any  system  of  farming  can 
as  easily  satisfy  all  the  tenets  of  good  farm  management 
as  a  properly  conducted  dairy  business  which  depends 
on  its  output  of  cream  or  butter  and  pork  for  its  principal 
revenue. 

Hogs  are  essential  to  successful  beef-production.  The 
pork  produced  from  the  undigested  grain  from  cattle  in 


4  Pork  Production 

lot  or  pasture  is  clear  gain  and  one  of  the  most  important 
profit-determining  factors  in  cattle-feeding.  For  every 
bushel  of  corn  fed  shelled  or  on  the  ear  to  steers,  the  hogs 
following  will  produce  from  one  to  two  pounds  of  pork 
on  the  average ;  when  the  grain  is  fed  crushed  or  as  meal, 
from  a  quarter  to  a  half  pound  of  pork  will  be  produced. 

In  crop  production  the  yield  of  grain  in  proportion  to 
roughage  is  greater  than  necessary  to  meet  the  feed 
requirements  of  cattle  or  sheep  and  horses.  This  leaves 
a  surplus  of  grain,  much  of  which,  in  the  case  of  corn 
especially,  can  be  marketed  more  profitably  as  pork  than 
in  the  raw  condition.  The  value  of  small  grain  which 
has  been  damaged  seriously  by  frost,  hot  winds,  or  ele- 
vator fire  is  very  largely  determined  by  its  use  in  pig- 
feeding.  The  ability  of  the  hog  profitably  to  use  corn 
which  is  so  soft  as  to  be  practically  unmarketable  has 
made  him  popular  on  farms  which  do  not  ordinarily  pro- 
duce many  hogs. 

The  important  position  which  the  hog  occupies  on  the 
American  farm  has  been  gained  through  his  inherent 
ability  to  render  a  profit  above  the  costs  of  production. 
These  profits  are  due  largely  to  certain  advantages  which 
the  hog  enjoys  as  a  producer  of  human  food;  these 
advantages  are  separately  enumerated  in  the  following 
paragraphs : 

1.  The  demand  for  pork  is  wide  and  insistent.  Except- 
ing dairy  products,  no  animal  food  is  so  necessary  in  the 
diet  or  so  universally  used.  In  this  country  more  pork 
is  consumed  than  any  other  meat.  Statistics  collected 
by  the  United  States  Food  Administration 1  show  the 
following  relative  to  the  total  per  capita  consumption  of 

1  "  Production  of  Meat  in  the  United  States,"  Stephen  Chase, 
1919. 


General  View  5 

the  different  meats  for  the  years  from   1911    to   1918, 
inclusive : 

TABLE  I. — PER   CAPITA    CONSUMPTION   OP    PORK    COMPARED 
WITH  OTHER  MEATS 


1911 

1912 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

Av. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Pork     

93 

88 

91 

88 

92 

96 

72 

86 

88 

Beef      

81 

75 

74 

72 

73 

76 

75 

79 

76 

Sheep  and  Lamb    . 

8.46 

8.84 

8.36 

8.25 

6.94 

6.77 

5.03 

5.38 

7.25 

Veal     

6.67 

6.53 

5.20 

4.53 

4.72 

7.83 

10.71 

11.27 

7.18 

The  demand  for  fat  in  this  country  and  Europe  is  sup- 
plied chiefly  by  pork.  The  responsibility  for  meeting  the 
world  shortage  of  fat  developed  by  the  War  rested  most 
heavily,  therefore,  on  the  American  pork-producer.  On 
the  average,  the  yield  of  lard  constitutes  about  1 1  per  cent 
of  the  hog's  live  weight. 

No  meat  is  preserved  so  successfully  or  transported  so 
cheaply  as  pork.  Pork  products  may  be  held  in  storage  for 
long  periods  without  sacrificing  palatability  or  food  value. 

2.  Hogs  sell  at  relatively  high  prices.  This  is  one  of  the 
results  of  the  broad  and  insistent  demand  for  pork 
products.  The  figures  given  in  the  following  tabulation 
represent  the  average  prices  paid  on  the  Chicago  market 
for  the  different  classes  of  live-stock  for  the  twelve-year 
period  from  1905  to  1916  inclusive : 

Native  beef  steers   (not  including  butcher 

stock) $7 .05  per  cwt. 

Native  and  western  sheep 5.29    ' 

Yearling  sheep 6.26   ' 

Native  and  western  lambs 7.38    "       " 

Hogs  (all  classes) 7.26   "      " 


6 


Pork  Production 


These   figures  indicate   that,  taking   it  from  year  to 
year,  hogs  outsell  sheep  and  lambs  or  cattle.     The  larger 

proportion  of  dressed  to  live 
weight  in  the  yield  of  hogs 
and  the  demand  for  lard  are 
the  principal  reasons  why 
higher  prices  are  warranted. 

3.  Pork  is  produced  eco- 
nomically. No  other  meat- 
producing  animal  on  the  farm 
produces  human  food  as  eco- 
nomically as  the  pig,  despite 
the  fact  that  concentrated 


WORLD  TOTAL 
162,800,000  HEAD 
LEADING  COUNTRIES 


NUMBER  PER  IOOO  POPULATION 

100          ?00          300         tO         <,  0'         60         700         800         ; 


DENMARK 

UNITED    STATES 

VENEZUELA 

COLOMBIA 

CANADA 

ARGENTINA 

GERMAN    EMPIRE 

AUSTRIA  -HUNGARY 


LEADING  COUNTRIES 


NUMBER  PER  SQUARE  MILE 


DENMARK . 

BELGIUM 

GERMAN    EMPIRE 

NtTHERLANDS 

AUSTRIA  -HUNGARY 

SERVIA 

PORTO  RICO__ 

FRANCE 


LEADING    COUNTRIES 


MILLIONS  OF  SWINE 


UNITED    STATES 

GERMAN  EMPIRE 

RUSSIAN  EMPIRE 

AUSTRIA -HUNGARY 

FRANCE 

UNITED"  KINGDOM 

CANADA __ 

ARGENTINA  __ 


Fia.  2.  —  Number  of  swine  in  leading  countries. 


General  View  7 

foods  necessarily  make  up  the  major  part  of  his  ration. 
The  initial  cost  of  the  pig  at  birth  is  much  less  than  it  is 
for  the  calf  or  lamb,  and  the  cost  of  the  subsequent  gains, 
whether  measured  in  pounds  of  digestible  nutrients  or  in 
dollars  and  cents,  is  in  favor  of  the  pig.  The  figures  given 
below  represent  the  average  amount  of  feed  required  to 
produce  100  pounds  of  gain  during  the  market-finishing 
period  of  steers,  lambs  and  pigs : 

1000-lb.  Fattening  steer    .     .    800  Ib.  grain  and  475  Ib. 

legume  hay. 
65-lb.  Fattening  lamb    .     .    400  Ib.  grain  and  500  Ib. 

legume  hay. 
200-lb.  Fattening  pig       .     .    450  Ib.  grain  and  no  hay. 

When  to  this  is  added  the  ability  of  the  pig  rapidly  to 
convert  into  pork  kitchen  garbage,  the  undigested  corn  in 
the  droppings  of  cattle,  damaged  grains,  and  dairy  by- 
products, a  still  stronger  statement  of  his  efficiency  and 
economy  could  be  made. 

4.  It  does  not  require  much  time  to  get  a  start  in  the 
hog  business.     The  large  number  of  pigs  produced  in  each 
litter,  the  relatively  short  gestation  period,  the  possibility 
of  raising  two  litters  annually,  and  the  rapidity  with  which 
the  gilts  attain  breeding  age  contribute  to  this  result. 
The  initial  investment  in  starting  a  herd  of  hogs  is  less 
than  with  other  classes  of  stock  because  fewer  females 
will  suffice.     The  length  of  time  between  periods  of  heavy 
and  light  production  is  shorter  for  hogs  than  for  cattle  or 
sheep.     A  shortage  of  meat   consequently  can   be   met 
more  promptly  with  pork  than  with  other  meats. 

5.  Pigs  can  be  sold  at  weights  anywhere  from  175  to 
350  pounds  with  little  sacrifice  in  price.     This  means  that 
the  feeder  is  comparatively  free  to  take  advantage  of  a 


8  Pork  Production 

good  market  by  selling  early  or  of  feeding  to  heavier 
weights  when  the  prospects  of  a  better  market  are 
good.  In  the  case  of  steers  and  lambs,  the  situation 
is  entirely  different.  A  variation  of  $1.00  to  $1.50  a 
hundredweight  in  the  selling  price  of  cattle  due  to 
variation  in  finish  or  condition  is  common ;  in  the  case 
of  lambs  also  the  variation  in  price  is  such  that  the  feeder 
is  restricted  to  a  very  narrow  range  of  time  and  weight 
in  marketing. 

6.  The  market  value  of  old  sows  which  have  done 
service  in  the  breeding  herd  is  higher  than  it  is  for  cows 
or  ewes.     Heavy  packing  sows  sell  during  the  fall  within 
50  to  75  cents  of  the  top  of  the  market  for  prime  fat 
barrows,   according  to   pre-war   quotations,   and   during 
the  spring  from  25  to  50  cents  of  the  top.    On  the  same 
markets  the  difference  in  price  between  choice  to  prime 
cows  and  the  top  for  fat  steers  would  exceed  $3.00,  and 
between  choice  ewes  and  prime  fed  lambs  the  spread 
would  be  $3.00  or  more.     Although  sows  are  subject  to 
a  dock  in  some  markets  of  twenty  to  forty  pounds,  fre- 
quently they  sell  for  more  after  finishing  a  long  career 
in  the  breeding  herd  than  they  cost  at  the  beginning. 
This  is  an  item  of  no  small  importance  in  the  more  eco- 
nomical production  of  pork. 

7.  The  necessary  equipment  for  the  successful  handling 
of  a  herd  of  hogs  is  not  extensive  nor  expensive.     This  is 
particularly  true   when   early   pigs   are   not   attempted. 
Suitable   shelter  must  be   provided  for  early-farrowing 
sows,  but  it  need  not  be  of  a  kind  which  would  mean  a 
burdensome  overhead  expense.     Hogs  are  more  susceptible 
to  extreme  heat  than  any  other  farm  animal,  but  the  cost 
of  appropriate  shades  is  little  more  than  the  time  required 
to  erect  them. 


General  View  9 

8.  The  labor-cost  of  producing  pork  is  low.  Excepting 
beef  cattle,  no  other  farm  animal  requires  so  little  labor 
in  proportion  to  the  value  of  the  animals  handled.  With 
the  more  general  use  of  forage  crops  in  growing  the  pigs, 
the  wide  use  of  the  self-feeder  for  feeding  pigs  intended 
for  an  early  market,  and  the  increasing  popularity  of  the 
practice  of  hogging-down  corn,  labor  costs  are  materially 
reduced. 

These  facts  have  not  been  stated  with  the  view  of 
minimizing  the  hog  raiser's  responsibility  in  the  proper 
care  and  management  of  his  herd.  It  does  not  pay  to 
raise  hogs  if  their  feeding  and  care  are  not  given  intelligent 
thought  and  consideration.  Pigs  cannot  be  raised  suc- 
cessfully if  the  sows  at  farrowing  time  are  allowed  to 
shift  for  themselves.  Clean  dry  quarters  and  balanced 
rations  are  necessary  if  the  growing  shotes  make  either 
rapid  or  economical  gains.  The  money  spent  for  a  few 
good  brood  sows  is  well  invested  only  if  they  are  given 
the  proper  feeds,  plenty  of  exercise,  and  sanitary  quarters. 
It  does  not  require  much  time  to  start  in  the  hog  business, 
provided  the  pigs  are  saved  and  properly  developed  ;  but 
if  systematic  measures  are  not  adopted  for  the  control 
of  lice,  worms,  plague,  and  cholera,  the  business  will  soon 
become  a  failure. 


CHAPTER  II 

FEEDING  AND  HANDLING  THE  HERD  IN  THE 
BREEDING  SEASON 

THE  feeding,  care,  and  general  management  of  the  herd 
during  the  breeding  season  determine  in  large  measure 
the  results  at  farrowing  time.  The  treatment  received 
by  the  sows  and  boar  at  this  time  affects  the  size  and  even- 
ness of  the  litters  and  the  strength  and  activity  of  the 
pigs  at  birth.  In  addition,  it  is  usually  desirable  to  have 
the  sows  farrow  about  the  same  time,  which  is  only  pos- 
sible by  proper  feeding  and  systematic  attention  to  the 
details  of  care  and  management. 

FEEDING  THE  SOWS 

The  immediate  objects  which  the  feeder  should  seek 
are  the  prompt  appearance  of  heat  in  the  sows,  their 
susceptibility  to  impregnation,  and  the  production  by 
each  sow  of  a  large  number  of  vigorous  eggs  during  the 
heat  period.  The  fundamental  essential  in  securing 
these  results  is  a  vigorous  condition  of  health  on  the  part 
of  the  sows  during  the  breeding  season. 

In  order  that  the  sows  may  be  at  the  maximum  of  breed- 
ing thrift,  it  is  necessary  that  special  attention  be  given 
their  feeding  and  care  several  weeks  before  mating.  Ma- 
ture sows  which  are  thin  in  the  fall  as  the  result  of  plenty 
of  grass  and  exercise'  and  little  or  no  grain,  are  in  ideal 
condition  for  this  preliminary  treatment.  Sows  which 

10 


Feeding  and  Handling  the  Herd  11 

have  weaned  fall  litters  are  also  in  good  condition  to 
respond  favorably. 

This  treatment,  known  among  shepherds  as  'flushing,' 
consists  in  feeding  the  sows  so  as  to  cause  them  to  gain 
from  three-quarters  to  a  pound  daily  two  weeks  before 
the  opening  of  the  breeding  season  and  until  they  are 
safely  in  pig.  The  practical  effect  of  such  feeding  seems 
to  be  to  stimulate  all  the  vital  functions,  and  among  them 
the  breeding  function,  to  greater  activity.  When  it  is 
remembered  that  the  size  of  the  litter  is  limited  by  the 
number  of  eggs  produced  by  the  sow,  the  importance  of 
such  a  condition  is  magnified.  It  has  also  been  observed 
that  sows  when  gaining  in  flesh  and  thrift  tend  to  come 
in  heat  promptly  and  to  be  more  susceptible  to  im- 
pregnation when  bred. 

To  respond  favorably  to  the  treatment  suggested  above, 
the  sows  must  be  thin  in  condition  at  the  beginning. 
Sows  that  are  already  as  heavy  as  is  consistent  with  vigor 
and  activity  should  be  stimulated,  if  possible,  by  supplying 
plenty  of  range  and  exercise  with  access  to  green  feed. 
With  show  sows  or  those  very  high  in  condition,  it  is 
usually  necessary  to  reduce  in  flesh  before  they  will 
breed.  This  should  be  done  without  subjecting  them  to 
any  sudden  change  in  diet,  by  withdrawing  the  grain  from 
their  rations  gradually,  and  by  stimulating  exercise  by 
allowing  them  the  freedom  of  a  good  pasture.  To  estab- 
lish regular  breeding  habits  in  a  sow  that  has  been  highly 
fitted  is  as  reliable  a  test  of  good  feeding  as  is  the  ability 
to  bring  her  up  to  the  bloom  of  show  condition. 

Rations. 

No  single  ration  is  best  for  bringing  about  the  con- 
dition of  breeding  thrift  sought  at  this  time.  Conditions 


12  Pork  Production 

as  regards  feed  supply  vary  from  year  to  year  and  from 
place  to  place,  while  variations  in  the  maturity  and  con- 
dition of  the  sows  require  modifications  in  the  rations. 
The  best  treatment  of  the  sows  by  the  feeder  must  be 
determined  for  each  particular  farm  and  region,  and  should 
take  account  especially  of  the  age  and  flesh  of  the  sows, 
and  the  feeds  which  are  available  and  cheapest. 

If  there  is  considerable  variation  in  the  herd  in  regard 
to  age  and  condition  of  the  sows,  they  should  be  graded. 
If  only  those  sows  of  the  same  maturity  and  general 
condition  are  together  at  feeding  time,  the  rations  can 
be  measured  more  accurately  to  their  needs.  The  average 
farm  can  well  afford  the  facilities  which  will  make  prac- 
ticable the  separation  of  the  gilts  which  are  intended  for 
breeding  from  the  mature  sows. 

Thin  mature  sows  should  be  fed  so  that  they  will  be 
gaining  a  week  or  more  before  the  opening  of  the  breeding 
season.  A  most  practical  and  satisfactory  combination 
for  the  corn-belt  is  corn  and  a  run  of  some  green  feed  of 
a  leguminous  nature.  Corn  and  alfalfa,  or  clover,  or 
soybean,  or  cowpea  forage  make  an  ideal  diet.  Where 
these  crops  are  not  available,  as  in  the  North  when  breed- 
ing in  November  and  December,  fall-sown  rye,  blue- 
grass,  or  the  ordinary  tame  pastures,  will  be  valuable. 
Free  access  to  a  legume  hay  fed  in  racks  will  help  to  make 
up  for  the  loss  of  green  feed  when  the  latitude  and  season 
make  these  unavailable.  In  those  sections  which  regu- 
larly grow  roots  there  is  available  a  succulence  which  is 
much  relished  and  of  value  in  bringing  about  the  condition 
of  breeding  thrift  desired.  With  non-leguminous  green 
feeds,  a  small  amount  of  some  protein  feed  should  be 
given  along  with  the  corn,  the  proportion  of  which  should 
be  determined  in  each  case  by  the  quality  of  the  pasture. 


Feeding  and  Handling  the  Herd  13 

Approximately  one  part  of  tankage  or  meat-meal,  or  two 
parts  of  linseed  oil  meal,  or  five  to  six  parts  of  wheat 
shorts  or  middlings,  to  twelve  parts  of  shelled  corn  will 
make  a  balanced  ration.  Outside  of  the  corn-belt,  the 
available  grains  should  take  the  place  of  corn,  and  be 
fed,  when  supplemented  with  a  purchased  protein  feed, 
in  practically  the  same  proportions. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  feed  grain  to  sows  that  are 
already  in  strong  condition,  or  when  reducing  show  sows, 
the  above  suggestions  as  to  kind  of  rations  are  appropriate. 
With  good  forage  crops  or  pasture  or  roots  available, 
however,  little  grain  will  be  necessary.  The  rations 
most  suitable  for  the  gilts  should  contain  more  protein 
than  those  for  mature  sows,  because  a  large  proportion 
of  their  food  is  used  for  growth.  About  one-half  more 
shorts,  tankage,  or  other  protein  feed  should  be  given 
than  in  the  proportions  recommended  above  for  older  sows. 

Amount  to  feed. 

The  best  and  most  practical  guide  in  determining  how 
much  to  feed  the  sows  at  this  time  is  the  condition  of 
flesh  they  are  in.  It  is  probably  true  that  the  amount  fed 
must  be  subjected  to  more  variation  than  the  character 
of  the  ration  or  the  combination  of  feeds.  The  necessity 
for  grading  is  largely  due  to  the  ill  effects  of  feeding  the 
fat  sow  as  liberally  as  the  thin  one.  A  mature  sow  in 
breeding  condition  can  be  maintained  without  loss  of 
weight,  as  a  rule,  by  a  little  less  than  li  pounds  of  average 
grain  daily  for  each  100  pounds  weight.  Also,  a  mature 
sow  will  nearly  maintain  her  weight  on  good  blue-grass, 
and  will  make  some  gain  when  on  a  suitable  forage  crop, 
if  medium  to  thin  in  condition.  These  facts  are  useful 
in  estimating  the  quantity  of  grain  to  feed  in  the  begin- 


14  Pork  Production 

ning,  or  the  necessity  of  feeding  any  grain  at  all.  After- 
wards, close  observation  of  the  gains  and  condition  of  the 
sows  should  be  relied  on  to  indicate  whether  too  much 
or  too  little  is  being  fed. 

Thin  mature  sows  should  receive,  on  the  average,  from 
one-half  to  twTo-thirds  a  full  grain  ration.  This  will  be 
sufficient,  especially  with  green  feed,  to  insure  the  gain 
desired.  A  full  ration,  or  all  they  will  eat,  should  not  be 
given  because  of  the  probability  of  their  becoming  too 
fat  and  the  necessity  of  a  sudden  reduction  in  the  ration 
later,  which  is  always  to  be  avoided.  Sows  already  in 
fair  condition  of  flesh  should  receive  little  or  no  grain, 
depending  largely  on  the  kind  of  green  feed  available. 
Gilts  intended  for  breeding  should  be  fed  liberally.  A 
little  less  grain  than  they  will  eat  is  generally  desirable 
so  as  to  encourage  exercise  and  the  use  of  green  feed,  and 
to  avoid  too  high  condition.  They  should  be  kept  thrifty 
and  growing. 

FEEDING  THE  BOAR 

The  boar  has  large  and  responsible  duties  to  perform 
in  the  breeding  season.  His  breeding  condition  is  as 
important  as  that  of  the  entire  female  herd  considered 
collectively.  To  be  dependable,  he  must  be  a  ready 
server  and  a  sure  breeder.  Vigorous  health,  activity,  and 
a  medium  condition  of  flesh  usually  reflect  virility  and 
breeding  capacity.  Such  a  state  is  influenced  largely 
by  the  amount  and  kind  of  feeds  which  he  has  to  eat. 

Demands. 

The  boar  should  be  given  a  ration  in  keeping  with  his 
needs.  During  this  time  a  mature  boar  requires  more 
nitrogenous  material,  or  protein,  and  more  mineral 


Feeding  and  Handling  the  Herd  15 

matter  than  are  necessary  when  not  in  breeding  service. 
The  demands  on  his  energies,  in  addition  to  the  require- 
ments of  maintenance,  are  largely  of  a  nitrogenous  nature, 
and  this  loss,  which  is  considerable  with  each  service, 
must  be  made  good  if  his  breeding  powers  are  preserved. 
Two  weeks  before  the  breeding  season  opens,  the  mature 
boar  should  be  in  rather  thin  condition  and  active.  He 
should  then  be  brought  up  to  the  breeding  season  in  an 
improving  condition,  without  allowing  him  to  become  fat, 
or  to  impair  his  activity.  Young  boars  require  a  grow- 
ing ration,  and  when  used  for  breeding  the  effort  should 
be  to  satisfy  both  demands  by  a  ration  that  is  not  deficient 
in  mineral  matter  and  protein. 

Rations. 

Probably  the  worst  ration  that  can  be  fed  is  straight 
corn  in  the  dry  lot.  If  an  unlimited  supply  of  this  cereal 
is  available  and  exercise  is  limited,  the  evil  effects  will 
be  still  more  certain.  Experience  has  shown  that  sure 
and  reliable  breeding  qualities  cannot  be  maintained 
when  corn  constitutes  the  sole  feed  in  the  ration.  Access 
to  a  green  feed  of  some  kind  will  enable  the  boar  to  acquire 
much  that  corn  lacks  and  will  promote  a  fairly  loose  con- 
dition of  the  bowels  which  is  essential  to  good  health. 
However,  when  used  heavily,  the  boar  should  not  be 
expected  to  receive  a  very  large  part  of  his  nourishment 
from  this  source.  Too  much  green  feed,  in  fact,  is  con- 
sidered by  some  to  be  detrimental  to  his  breeding  qualities. 
Some  one  or  more  of  the  supplemental  feeds  suggested 
for  the  sows  at  this  time  should  be  fed  with  the  corn  or 
other  home-grown  grains. 

The  boar  should  have  about  the  same  combination  of 
feeds  as  the  growing  gilts  intended  for  the  breeding  herd. 


16  Pork  Production 

If  the  service  is  heavy,  he  should  have  a  wider  variety 
and  a  smaller  proportion  of  corn.  Corn  alone  is  so  bad 
that  many  breeders  recommend  that  it  be  entirely  ex- 
cluded from  the  ration  of  the  boar  when  in  service.  A 
variety  of  home-grown  grains,  with  a  little  green  feed, 
skim-milk  or  roots,  with  some  shorts  or  tankage,  or  some 
such  protein  supplement  added,  will  give  the  best  results 
in  breeding  service.  The  immature  boar  should  receive 
approximately  the  same  combination  of  feeds  that  is  best 
for  the  mature  hog  when  performing  heavy  service. 

Amount  to  feed. 

The  amount  of  grain  that  should  be  fed  to  the  boar  will 
depend :  first,  on  the  intensity  of  his  breeding  service ; 
second,  on  his  age  and  condition;  and  third,  on  the 
amount  of  nourishment  obtained  from  such  feeds  as 
forage  crops,  grass,  or  roots.  A  mature  boar  in  good 
condition  at  the  beginning  of  the  breeding  season  will 
ordinarily  lose  weight  when  used  to  the  normal  limit  of 
his  breeding  capacity.  If  heavily  used  he  will  require 
practically  a  full  ration.  In  all  cases,  however,  the  guide 
should  be  to  determine  the  amount  given  by  his  condition 
rather  than  his  appetite,  the  effort  being  to  maintain  his 
weight.  If  just  right  at  the  beginning  of  the  breeding 
season,  this  method  will  insure  the  maximum  of  breeding 
service.  The  immature  boar  should  be  fed  so  that  he 
will  experience  no  material  check  in  his  growth  and  de- 
velopment. A  full  ration,  or  all  that  he  will  clean  up, 
should  ordinarily  be  given  him. 

Exercise. 

To  develop  and  maintain  a  vigorous  condition  of  breed- 
ing thrift  in  the  boars  and  sows,  exercise  is  as  important 


Feeding  and  Handling  the  Herd  17 

as  good  feeding.  Without  exercise  the  foundation  of 
good  health  is  impossible.  The  most  practical  and  de- 
sirable method  of  supplying  exercise  is  to  give  plenty  of 
range.  Ordinarily,  if  the  boar  and  sows  are  in  the  best 
flesh  for  breeding  purposes,  they  will  take  all  the  exercise 
needed  if  given  the  opportunity.  In  the  case  of  the  boar 
particularly,  it  too  often  happens  that  his  range  is  limited 
to  a  narrow  pen  where  insanitary  conditions  and  lack  of 
exercise  combine  in  reducing  his  health  and  vigor.  Ex- 
ercise is  sufficiently  important  for  the  breeding  boar  to 
warrant  the  time  and  attention  necessary  to  take  him 
out  and  drive  him  a  half-hour  twice  in  the  day,  if  it  cannot 
be  given  by  some  other  method. 

GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS 

The  period  of  sexual  excitement  known  as  "heat" 
should  be  understood.  The  significance  of  heat  is  that 
the  sow  is  secreting,  or  preparing  to  secrete,  the  ripened 
eggs  or  ova.  The  appearance  of  heat  is  supposed  to 
precede  by  a  day  or  two  the  production  of  these  eggs  or 
germ-cells  which,  on  fertilization  by  their  union  with  the 
male  germ-cells,  produce  the  embryo  pigs.1  The  heat 
period  lasts  about  three  days,  and  is  the  only  time  during 
which  a  normal  sow  will  accept  service  from  the  boar. 

A  sow  comes  in  heat  every  twenty  or  twenty-one  days, 
on  the  average,  during  the  breeding  season,  if  not  bred. 
The  exceptions  to  this  are  sows  which  lack  breeding  con- 
dition or  thrift  and  those  which  are  nursing  pigs.  It 
frequently  happens,  however,  that  a  sow  will  come  in 
heat  a  few  days  after  farrowing,  usually  the  third  day, 

1  MacKenzie     and    Marshall:      "Journal     of    Agricultural 
Science,"  1912. 
c 


18  Pork  Production 

and  again  before  the  litter  is  weaned.  The  natural  breed- 
ing seasons  seem  to  be  the  early  summer  or  late  fall, 
although  a  vigorous  sow  when  gaining  will  come  in  heat 
at  other  times,  even  in  the  hottest  summer  months. 

Researches  by  L.  L.  Lewis  of  the  Oklahoma  Experiment 
Station  on  the  vitality  of  germ-cells  indicate  that  the 
ripened  eggs  or  ova  are  not  discharged  from  the  ovaries 
until  the  latter  end  of  the  heat  period.1  These  studies 
also  revealed  that  the  sperm-cells  of  the  boar  do  not,  as 
a  rule,  retain  their  vitality  in  the  body  of  the  sow  for  a 
longer  period  than  sixteen  hours  after  service.  These 
observations  would  seem  to  support  the  theory  that 
successful  impregnation  is  most  certain  when  the  sow  is 
bred  in  the  latter  stages  of  the  heat  period.  So  far, 
general  observations  in  practice,  however,  have  shown 
no  advantage  for  early  or  late  breeding  so  far  as  either 
may  affect  complete  fertilization  or  the  size  of  the  resulting 
litter. 

Length  of  gestation  period. 

The  time  elapsing  between  breeding  and  farrowing  is 
known  as  the  gestation  period.  During  this  time  each 
of  the  fertilized  eggs  develops  into  an  embryo  pig,  and 
with  the  completion  of  the  pigs'  embryonic  development, 
birth  takes  place.  Normally,  the  gestation  period  is  just 
long  enough  to  make  possible  full  embryonic  development 
of  the  pigs  and  to  accommodate  those  physiological  adjust- 
ments in  the  sow  which  are  preliminary  to  parturition 
or  farrowing. 

Gestation  tables  which  have  been  worked  out  for  the 
convenience  of  breeders  are  calculated  on  the  basis  of 
112  days,  or  16  weeks,  as  the  time  elapsing  between  breed- 
1  L.  L.  Lewis :  Bull.  96,  Okla.  Exp.  Sta. 


Feeding  and  Handling  the  Herd  19 

ing  and  farrowing.  Recent  accumulations  of  data, 
however,  indicate  that  the  average  time  is  more  nearly 
114  days  than  it  is  112.  Breeding  and  farrowing  records 
of  488  litters  in  the  Illinois  University  herd l  showed 
114f  days  to  be  the  average  time  which  the  sows  carried 
their  pigs,  the  longest  observed  being  124  days  and  the 
shortest  98  days.  A  study  of  these  records  did  not  reveal 
any  tendency  for  mature  sows  to  carry  their  pigs  longer 
than  did  gilts.  The  average  length  of  seventy- seven 
gestation  periods  in  the  Purdue  University  farm  herd 
was  113i  days.  In  this  herd,  sows  with  their  first  litter 
went,  on  the  average,  113.2  days;  those  with  their  second 
litters,  113.4  days ;  those  with  their  third,  114.5  days ;  and 
with  the  fourth,  113.6  days.  It  is  the  common  opinion 
among  breeders  that  gilts  and  old  sows  lacking  thrift 
farrow  a  few  days  earlier  than  the  average,  while  mature 
vigorous  sows  tend  to  carry  their  pigs  a  few  days  longer. 

Age  to  breed  the  gilt. 

A  gilt  should  take  her  place  in  the  breeding  herd  as 
soon  as  her  growth  has  reached  the  stage  where  the 
demands  of  maternity  will  not  materially  affect  her  own 
development  or  her  future  usefulness  in  the  breeding 
herd.  Just  where  this  stage  is  in  the  life  of  the  gilt  is 
a  question  of  development  rather  than  of  age.  The  gilt 
that  is  well  grown  is  more  reliable  as  a  future  mother 
when  bred  at  seven  months  of  age  than  the  gilt  of  ten 
months  whose  development  has  been  retarded  by  in- 
sufficient nourishment. 

Experience  has  established  the  important  fact  that 
reasonably  early  breeding  tends  to  establish  reliable 
breeding  habits,  while  late  breeding  frequently  results 

1  W.  J.  Carmichael :   Master's  thesis,  Univ.  111.,  1916. 


20  Pork  Production 

in  the  reverse.  Furthermore,  early  breeding,  other 
things  being  equal,  reduces  the  cost  of  the  pigs  at  birth. 
The  earlier  the  gilt  can  be  made  a  producer,  the  larger 
will  be  the  saving  in  feed,  interest,  and  risk.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  practice  of  depending  on  undeveloped  gilts 
for  the  production  of  the  entire  pig  crop,  as  is  frequently 
done,  cannot  be  condemned  too  strongly.  The  immediate 
loss  is  expressed  in  small  litters  and  imperfect  nourish- 
ment of  the  pigs.  Gilts  intended  for  showing  usually  are 
not  bred  until  after  they  are  twelve  months  old.  Show- 
ing practice  necessitates  the  postponement  of  breeding 
even  though  the  future  value  of  the  gilt  as  a  producer 
may  be,  and  often  is,  sacrificed. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  gilt  that  is  well  developed  may  be 
bred  safely  to  farrow  when  from  twelve  to  fourteen  months 
of  age.  When  an  active  gilt  has  reached  the  weight  of 
200  pounds,  she  may  be  bred  without  danger  of  sacrificing 
full  development  at  maturity,  provided  she  is  properly 
fed  afterwards. 

Using  the  young  boar. 

Most  of  the  statements  made  above  in  regard  to  the 
proper  breeding  age  of  a  gilt  apply  with  equal  emphasis 
to  the  young  boar.  To  be  fit  for  even  limited  service  in 
November  or  December,  the  boar  pig  must  have  been 
farrowed  early,  in  February  or  March,  he  must  be  well 
grown  for  his  age,  and  he  should  possess  a  good  constitution 
and  natural  vigor.  With  all  of  these,  he  must  be  used 
judiciously.  Experience  shows  that  if  the  boar  pig  is 
used  to  excess,  the  probabilities  are  that  his  breeding 
powers  will  be  permanently  injured  and  the  pigs  produced 
will  have  a  tendency  to  weakness  and  small  size.  Ordi- 
narily, the  boar  should  not  be  allowed  to  make  more 


Feeding  and  Handling  the  Herd  21 

than  two  or  three  services  in  a  single  week  during  the 
breeding  season.  As  a  rule  and  under  average  conditions, 
it  is  unwise  to  use  the  pig  before  he  is  a  year  old.  The 
careful  conservation  of  his  breeding  powers  until  he  is 
fairly  well  developed  will  insure  larger  size  at  maturity 
and  an  extension  of  breeding  vigor  in  later  life.  Experi- 
ence has  shown  the  practice  of  depending  entirely  on  pigs 
for  sires  to  be  disastrous. 

Early  or  late  pigs. 

The  question  of  the  best  time  for  the  sows  to  farrow 
must  be  determined  for  each  farm  according  to  its  location, 
the  facilities  which  it  affords  in  the  way  of  quarters  for 
handling  early  pigs,  and  in  accordance  with  the  purposes 
of  the  farmer  and  his  plan  of  management.  Through- 
out the  corn-belt,  and  farther  north,  February  or  March 
farrowing  necessitates  warm  barns  or  houses  and  special 
attention  to  all  the  details  of  care  and  handling.  When 
the  pigs  are  not  finished  for  market  until  the  follow- 
ing spring  or  summer,  as  is  still  the  practice  on  some 
farms,  the  very  early  pigs  have  no  advantage  over  the 
late  ones. 

The  advantages  urged  for  early  pigs  are:  first,  that 
they  have  the  size  which  enables  them  to  make  a  larger 
and  more  satisfactory  use  of  forage  crops  during  the 
summer,  —  they  can  make  a  larger  proportion  of  their 
growth  from  green  feeds  and  hence  reduce  the  amount 
of  grain  required  in  their  growth,  while  the  expensive 
finishing  period  is  shortened;  the  second  advantage, 
and  perhaps  the  most  important  one,  is  that  the  early 
pigs  find  the  early  market,  and  this  is  ordinarily  the  best 
market.  As  a  rule,  average  pigs  throughout  the  corn- 
belt  are  marketed  in  December  or  January,  and,  as  a  rule, 


22  Pork  Production 

prices  are  lowest  during  these  months.  Furthermore, 
during  September  the  supply  is  generally  the  lowest  of 
the  year  and  the  prices  highest.  Although  there  are 
exceptions  to  these  average  conditions,  the  prices  for 
hogs  usually  fall  from  September  on  until  the  middle  of 
the  winter.  From  year  to  year,  the  producer  of  early 
pigs  will  be  in  a  position  to  profit  by  a  better  market. 
(See  Chapter  XVI.)  A  third  advantage  often  urged  for 
the  early  pigs  is  that  they  seem  to  do  better,  grow  faster, 
be  more  healthy  and  better  able  to  stand  the  extreme 
heat  of  early  summer.  Experience  generally  supports  these 
claims. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  must  be  remembered  that  finish- 
ing pigs  for  the  September  or  October  market  in  the  corn- 
belt  necessitates  the  use  of  old  corn  which  must  be  carried 
over,  or,  if  bought,  purchased  at  a  relatively  high  price. 
Also,  the  practice  of  hogging-down  corn  which  is  growing 
in  favor  could  not  be  followed  to  the  same  extent  as  with 
pigs  that  do  not  go  to  market  until  later.  Pigs  intended 
for  following  cattle  during  the  winter  should  come  early 
and  be  well  grown  and  active.  Late  pigs  are  usually 
too  small  to  be  satisfactory  for  this  purpose. 

The  breeder  of  pedigreed  hogs  ordinarily  finds  it  to  his 
advantage  to  breed  early  pigs.  In  addition  to  the  gratifi- 
cation and  advertising  value  of  having  pigs  which  are 
large  for  the  season,  they  can  be  disposed  of  as  prospective 
breeders  more  promptly  and  satisfactorily.  The  buyer 
generally  favors  early  purchases,  and  is  particular  about 
size  and  growthiness.  The  early  pig  will  commonly  sell 
before  November  first,  while  the  late  pig  will  often  remain 
to  be  an  expense  to  the  farm  and  a  drag  on  the  market 
the  next  season.  Pigs  intended  for  show  should  come  as 
soon  after  the  first  of  March  or  the  first  of  September  as 


Feeding  and  Handling  the  Herd  23 

possible,  since  these  dates  determine  in  most  classifications 
whether  the  pig  shall  show  in  the  junior  or  senior  class. 


MATING 

Two  general  systems  are  followed  in  the  handling  of 
sows  at  mating  time.  The  first  is  to  bring  each  sow  as 
she  comes  in  heat  to  the  boar  for  service  hand-coupling; 
the  second,  that  of  allowing  the  boar  to  run  with  the  sows. 

Systems. 

The  best  system  to  follow  will  be  determined  by  the 
conditions.  The  farmer  who  has  only  eight  to  ten  sows 
to  breed  finds  the  practice  of  turning  the  boar  out  with 
the  sows  to  be  satisfactory,  as  a  rule.  The  chief  advan- 
tages of  this  system  are  that  it  does  not  require  the  in- 
dividual attention  and  time  of  a  man  when  each  sow  is 
bred;  and  secondly,  the  boar  is  under  conditions  which 
permit  him  to  take  plenty  of  exercise.  It  is  sometimes 
urged,  also,  that  the  chances  of  missing  a  sow  when  she 
comes  in  heat  and  not  getting  her  bred  are  reduced  to 
a  minimum  in  this  system.  When  the  number  of  sows 
to  be  bred  is  well  within  the  number  which  the  boar  is 
capable  of  breeding  in  a  given  season,  and  when  it  is  not 
considered  essential  to  know  the  exact  date  when  each 
sow  is  bred,  there  is  little  in  the  practice  to  condemn. 

When  the  number  of  sows  in  the  herd  is  larger  than  can 
be  taken  care  of  safely  by  one  boar,  it  is  doubtful  whether 
this  is  the  best  system,  unless  there  is  a  surplus  of  boars 
of  equal  merit  available.  Too  often  the  tendency  is  to 
expect  the  boar  to  get  as  many  sows  in  pig  under  this 
system  as  could  be  done  with  safety  when  the  services 
are  regulated  by  hand-coupling.  The  results  are  that 


24  Pork  Production 

the  sows  are  not  settled  promptly  and  the  energies  of  the 
boar  are  unnecessarily  sapped.  When  running  with  the 
sows,  the  boar  should  not  be  expected  to  breed  many 
more  than  one-half  the  number  which  under  the  other 
system  he  would  be  able  to  take  care  of.  Even  when 
records  are  not  a  necessity,  it  is  commonly  better  to 
arrange  to  turn  the  sows  in  to  the  boar.  In  this  way 
the  number  of  services  of  the  boar  can  be  controlled  and 
his  energies  conserved.  The  result  is  that  a  maximum 
number  of  sows  can  be  gotten  in  pig  in  a  given  time. 
With  convenient  arrangement  of  the  lots  and  the  practice 
of  breeding  the  sows  at  feeding  time,  or  just  before,  very 
little  extra  time  will  be  required. 

In  pure-bred  herds  where  an  accurate  record  of  the 
breeding  of  each  pig  is  necessary,  any  other  system  than 
that  of  bringing  the  sows  to  the  boar  is  practically  out 
of  the  question.  In  pedigreed  herds,  the  number  to  be 
bred  is  frequently  large,  also,  and  several  boars  are  usually 
in  service  at  the  same  time,  and  it  is  desirable  that  each 
sow  be  bred  to  a  particular  boar.  The  importance  of 
getting  each  sow  successfully  bred  the  first  time  she  comes 
in  heat  and  the  desirability  of  maintaining  the  vigor  of 
the  boar  at  a  high  pitch,  are  so  great  as  to  warrant  the 
time  and  attention  required  to  breed  the  sows  individually, 
under  most  conditions. 

With  the  opening  of  the  breeding  season,  the  sows 
should  be  watched  closely  for  evidences  of  heat.  While, 
as  a  rule,  a  sow  in  heat  is  sufficiently  demonstrative  in  her 
behavior  to  make  detection  easy,  yet  in  every  herd  there 
are  ordinarily  a  few  sows  which  show  few  of  the  usual 
symptoms.  The  practice  of  having  the  boar  and  sows 
in  adjacent  fields  facilitates  observation.  When  in  heat, 
the  sow  will  be  found  along  the  fence  next  the  boar  and 


Feeding  and  Handling  the  Herd  25 

away  from  the  remainder  of  the  herd.  From  the  stand- 
point of  the  boar's  welfare,  however,  this  arrangement, 
although  productive  of  exercise,  is  usually  too  disquieting 
to  be  without  serious  criticism.  This  is  especially  true 
if  the  demands  on  the  boar  are  heavy.  The  boar  should 
ordinarily  be  away  from  all  such  exciting  influences. 
The  practice  of  having  a  "  teaser,"  or  a  boar  to  which  only 
a  few  sows  are  to  be  bred,  in  the  lot  or  pasture  next  the 
sows  is  a  good  solution  of  the  problem. 

Time  in  the  day  to  breed  the  sows. 

A  convenient  time  during  the  day  to  breed  the  sows  is, 
as  a  rule,  just  before  feeding.  The  boar  at  this  time,  also, 
will  be  in  the  best  condition  to  make  a  prompt  and  satis- 
factory service.  When  full  of  feed  the  boar  is  naturally 
sluggish,  and  his  inclination  to  lie  down  after  eating 
should  be  encouraged  rather  than  disturbed.  In  no  case 
should  the  boar  be  used  for  a  period  of  two  hours  after 
feeding.  When  two  sows  are  in  heat  at  the  same  time 
and  it  is  necessary  to  breed  them  to  the  same  boar,  the 
plan  of  breeding  one  in  the  morning  and  the  other  in  the 
evening  will  insure  the  best  results  and  have  a  minimum 
effect  on  the  vitality  of  the  boar. 

After  being  bred,  the  sow  should  be  put  into  a  pen  by 
herself  where  she  should  remain  until  after  going  out  of 
heat.  It  is  believed  that  she  will  be  more  certain  to 
conceive  if  her  activity  is  somewhat  restricted  and  she 
is  kept  quiet  and  away  from  other  sows. 

The  breeding-crate. 

The  breeding-crate  is  practically  a  necessity  when 
mature  heavy  boars  are  to  be  bred  to  gilts,  or  when  it  is 
desired  to  breed  the  boar  pig  to  rather  rangy  sows.  Even 


26  Pork  Production 

when  the  boar  and  sows  are  the  same  general  size  and  type, 
many  breeders  prefer  using  it.  They  claim  that  a  satis- 
factory service  is  much  more  certain  with  the  crate  than 
without  it  and  that  it  is  much  less  wearing  on  the  boar, 
which  is  undoubtedly  true.  The  boar,  however,  has  to 
be  taught  to  use  the  crate,  and  with  some  individuals 
considerable  patience  is  necessary  before  this  is  accom- 
plished. Boars  that  have  formed  the  habit  of  breeding 
under  natural  conditions  are  especially  slow  about  learning 
to  use  it,  while  some  refuse  altogether.  Farmers,  as  a 
rule,  do  not  favor  the  use  of  the  breeding-crate,  largely 
because  of  the  time  and  individual  attention  required 
by  such  a  method,  and  also  because  they  have  had  no 
experience  in  using  it.  Some  believe  that  the  sow  is  more 
liable  to  miss  conception  when  bred  under  such  artificial 
conditions.  If  she  is  thoroughly  in  heat  it  is  difficult  to 
see,  however,  how  this  could  have  anything  to  do  with 
the  successful  union  of  the  sperms  with  the  eggs,  which 
probably  occurs  some  time  in  the  next  forty-eight  hours. 

Number  of  sows  which  the  boar  can  breed. 

Under  given  conditions,  the  number  of  sows  which  the 
boar  can  breed  safely  will  depend  mainly  on  the  following 
factors :  age,  natural  vigor  or  fertility,  the  length  of  the 
breeding  season,  and  the  distribution  of  the  services. 
With  a  careful  distribution  of  the  services,  a  mature 
vigorous  hog  may  be  expected  to  take  care  of  thirty  sows, 
under  good  conditions.  For  a  herd  of  that  size,  however, 
it  would  be  wise  to  provide  a  second  hog  to  be  employed 
in  emergencies.  As  a  rule,  one  service  a  day  may  be 
permitted,  and  occasionally  two  when  following  a  day 
or  two  of  idleness.  The  yearling  boar  ordinarily  should 
breed  from  fifteen  to  twenty  sows  in  a  season  of  six  weeks 


Feeding  and  Handling  the  Herd  27 

or  two  months.  It  is  safer,  however,  not  to  force  him 
to  the  limit  of  his  powers.  As  already  stated,  it  is  usually 
better  not  to  use  the  pig  until  he  is  a  year  old.  If  well 
developed,  however,  he  may  be  allowed  two  or  three 
services  a  week  when  eight  months  of  age.  If  used  to 
excess  when  young,  the  effect  is  seriously  to  retard  develop- 
ment and  to  injure  the  future  breeding  powers. 

Some  boars  are  naturally  more  vigorous  than  others 
and  can  settle  twice  the  number  of  sows  in  a  breeding 
season.  Boars  from  prolific  mothers  are  believed  to  be 
more  fertile  than  those  selected  from  sows  which  do  not 
produce  large  litters.  The  way  the  boar  has  been  fed, 
the  amount  of  exercise  he  has  had  during  the  season  when 
he  was  not  in  service,  the  sanitary  conditions  under 
which  he  has  been  kept,  have  a  great  influence  on  his 
performance  during  the  breeding  season.  For  these 
reasons,  good  judgment  is  the  only  reliable  guide  in 
determining  the  extent  to  which  the  boar  can  be  used 
with  safety. 

A  careful  distribution  of  the  services  is  important. 
Nothing  is  gained  by  allowing  the  boar  two  services  when 
the  sow  is  bred.  If  the  first  service  is  a  good  one,  millions 
of  male  germ-cells,  called  sperms,  will  be  present  to 
fertilize  the  female  germ-cells,  or  eggs,  of  the  sow.  Since 
one  sperm  only  is  required  to  fertilize  each  egg,  it  is 
obvious  that  the  practice  of  giving  the  sow  a  double 
service  is  not  only  unnecessary,  but  a  waste  of  the  energies 
of  the  boar.  An  important  fact  to  remember  at  this  point 
is  that  the  successful  union  of  the  male  and  female  germ- 
cells  depends  to  a  large  extent  on  the  vigor  and  activity 
of  the  male  cells.  It  is  usually  necessary  for  these  male 
germ-cells  to  travel  a  considerable  distance  in  the  uterus 
and  Fallopian  tubes  of  the  sow  before  reaching  the  female 


28  Pork  Production 

germ-cells  or  eggs.  This  they  are  able  to  do  by  the 
movement  of  a  tail-like  appendage.  If  the  boar  is  not 
vigorous,  as  the  result  of  over-use,  or  is  too  fat  or  in 
a  run-down  condition,  experiments  indicate  that  the 
sperms  which  he  produces  will  themselves  lack  in  vigor 
and  activity.  The  thing  to  seek,  therefore,  is  vigorous 
lively  germs,  and  these  can  be  produced  only  by  a  vigorous 
boar  whose  services  have  been  regulated  carefully.  (See 
page  122.) 

Records. 

The  breeder  of  market  hogs  does  not,  as  a  rule,  make 
a  record  of  the  date  each  sow  is  bred.  When  the  sows 
are  bred  early,  however,  and  the  farrowing  season  is  in 
February  or  March,  a  knowledge  of  the  time  each  sow 
is  due  will  make  possible  that  preparation  and  individual 
attention  at  farrowing  time  which  are  necessary  to  save 
the  pigs  in  cold  weather.  Without  a  knowledge  of  the 
date  of  service,  it  will  be  necessary  to  depend  on  careful 
observation  and  judgment  to  indicate  when  the  sows  are 
due.  Even  with  the  most  careful  supervision,  the  ex- 
perienced hog  raiser  makes  many  bad  guesses,  and  as 
a  consequence  a  number  of  the  sows  farrow  with  the 
general  herd  and  under  conditions  not  favorable  to  the 
survival  of  the  pigs.  Such  experiences  suggest  that  it 
might  be  practical  for  the  producer  of  market  hogs, 
especially  when  early  pigs  are  attempted,  to  have  his 
sows  tagged  and  a  record  made  of  the  time  of  breeding. 
In  any  case,  a  definite  record  should  be  made  of  the  first 
and  last  services. 

With  pure-bred  herds,  breeding  records  are  a  practical 
necessity.  When  more  than  one  boar  is  in  service,  as  is 
commonly  the  case,  the  record  must  be  depended  on  in 


Feeding  and  Handling  the  Herd 


29 


writing  the  pedigrees  of  the  pigs  later,  as  well  as  to  indicate 
when  each  sow  is  due  to  farrow.  Before  the  breeding 
season  begins,  the  boar  to  which  each  sow  is  to  be  bred 
should  be  determined  so  far  as  possible.  Each  sow  must 
wear  an  ear-tag  bearing  her  number,  a  breeding  sheet 
should  be  made  out  containing  the  name  or  number  of 
each  sow,  the  name  of  the  boar  which  it  is  proposed  to 
breed  her  to,  with  spaces  for  recording  the  date  of  service. 
The  knowledge  of  the  sire  and  dam  of  each  sow  is  im- 
portant, also,  to  guard  against  the  possible  use  of  a  too 
closely  related  sire.  If  this  sheet  is  posted  in  some 
convenient  place  in  the  hog-barn,  the  entries  can  be  made 
promptly.  With  the  close  of  the  breeding  season,  the 
date  of  service  and  the  name  of  the  boar  bred  to  should 
be  transferred  to  the  permanent  record. 

The  following  record  form  embodying  these  features 
has  proved  practical  and  convenient  to  use : 


BREEDING  RECORD  —  FALL  1915 


NAME  OR 
NUMBER 
op  Sow 

SIRE  AND 
DAM 

BOAR  BRED  TO 
AND  DATE  OP 
IST  SERVICE 

BOAR  BRED  TO 
AND  DATE  OP 

2o  SERVICE 

REMARKS 

30 


Pork  Production 


•NVf 


<N  CO  T}<  lO  CO  t»  GO 


I-H  <N  CO  rH  »O  CO  t>. 


•oaa 


CO  T}H  iO  CD  l>  CO  O5 


'NVf 


•idag 


'AON 


£83£ 


•ony 


•loo 


CO 


<N<N<N<N 


i-l(MCOTt<iOoi> 


•oay 


i—  i  <N  CO  Tj*  iO  O  t> 


w    -oay 


amp 


a> 

(M 


•oaa 


•AON 


Feeding  and  Handling  the  Herd 


31 


COrJ<lOcOl>OOOSO'-<<MCOTt<>OcOt--COOSOr-i 

to  CO  l>  00  OS  O 
<M  C^  (M  C^  C^  CO 

COT^iOCOI>OOOSO'— !<?<JCOrJ<»OcQt>GOOSO'— i 

COrti'OcOt^-GCOO'— (<MCOrfiiOcOt>GOOSO'— i 
i-<i-l»-lT-lr-l»Hi-(THrHi-l<N<N 

COT}<LOcOt^OOOSOT-i<MCO 

i-Hi— (T— (i— (i— Ii-Hi— »C^C<J(MC<) 

T^i'OcOb-OOOSO'— i<MCO^'OcOt>-GOOSO'— I 

i-Hi— Ii-Hi— li— (i— (i— li— li— IrHC^lM 
T-l.-I^HrHr-lr-li-HfNC^lMfMfNC^lMfMC^C^CO 

--HlMCO-^'OCOt^OOOSO'-H 

^H^^t^Hr-lrH^H^H^HOJfM 

CO^f'OcDI>-OOOiO'-HC<ICOr)H"OcOt>OOO5O 
rJliOCDt>GOOSO'-i(MCO'<tiOcOt>GOOSO'-i<M 

^H^H^^H^r-I^H^HT-I^HIMlMC^ 

CO-*iOCOI>OOOSO'-H(NCOTtH»OcOl>.OOOsOr-i 

T-HT-Hr-(^-lr-(T-lrHC^(MC^(M<N(MC^(M<M(MCOCO 

"H<MCO-**OCOI>OOOS 
(M  (N  C<J  (M  <N 

COt^-OOOSOr- iC^COTftiOcOI>OOOSO'— '(MCOTtl 

^-(^HrH^HrHi-lrH^-l^-I^HOqC^lMC^C^ 

CO^iOcOl>OOOSO'— iC^COrfiOOl>-OOO5Or-i 


32  Pork  Production 

The  preceding  table  has  been  calculated  on  the  basis  of 
113  days  for  the  gestation  period.  To  use  the  table,  the 
date  of  service  is  found  in  the  left  of  the  double  column, 
and  the  date  on  the  right  will  be  the  time  due.  For 
example,  if  a  sow  is  bred  on  November  eighteenth,  the 
date  to  the  right  shows  that  she  will  be  due  to  farrow 
March  eleventh;  if  bred  May  twelfth,  she  will  be  due 
September  second,  and  so  on. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE   MANAGEMENT  AND    FEEDING    OF    THE 
BREEDING  HERD  IN  THE  WINTER 

IT  is  during  the  winter,  in  most  of  the  pork-producing 
sections,  that  the  problems  of  housing  and  management, 
sanitation,  exercise,  and  feeding,  become  of  more  than 
usual  importance.  With  cold  weather,  frozen  ground, 
and  dry  feeds,  the  breeding  herd  is  under  conditions 
which  make  it  more  difficult  to  maintain  good  health. 
The  problems  involved  in  the  successful  management  of 
the  herd  during  the  winter  directly  affect  the  results  in 
economy  of  maintenance  and  in  the  number  and  quality 
of  the  pigs  produced. 

GENERAL    MANAGEMENT 

An  item  of  first  importance  in  the  winter  management 
of  the  breeding  herd  is  its  proper  grading.  Only  those  indi- 
viduals whose  requirements  for  feed  and  general  care  are 
the  same  should  be  together.  The  effects,  for  example, 
of  allowing  the  pregnant  sows  to  run  with  the  fattening 
shotes  is  to  jeopardize  greatly  the  chances  of  a  good  pig 
crop  in  the  spring.  Hogs  that  are  being  fattened  for 
market  do  well  in  restricted  quarters,  and  with  full  fatten- 
ing rations.  It  is  impossible  for  the  pregnant  sows  under 
these  conditions  to  produce  healthy,  vigorous  pigs  or  to 
nurse  them  properly  after  birth.  The  sows  demand  a 
D  33 


34  Pork  Production 

special  ration  and  plenty  of  exercise.  Open  and  bred 
gilts  should  likewise  be  separated  from  the  mature  sows, 
for  they  require  a  more  liberal  ration  and  one  containing 
more  bone  and  muscle-building  ingredients  especially 
during  the  first  half  of  the  winter.  With  advanced  preg- 
nancy, the  gilts  which  are  bred  should  be  separated  from 
the  open  gilts  when  the  facilities  make  this  possible. 
The  practice  of  allowing  the  pregnant  sows  to  run  with 
the  cattle  is  objectionable  if  separate  sleeping  quarters 
are  not  provided  and  their  consumption  of  corn  is  not 
carefully  guarded.  Horses  and  hogs  do  not  get  along  well 
together,  and  when  the  hogs  are  compelled  to  seek  the 
same  shed  for  shelter  the  chances  of  injury  are  greater 
than  one  can  afford  to  take.  Although  the  number  of 
divisions  necessary  in  the  proper  grading  of  the  herd  may 
present  some  difficulties  on  the  general  farm  where  other 
usual  classes  of  stock  must  be  provided  for,  experience 
has  demonstrated  that  it  is  a  matter  of  prime  importance. 
The  mature  boars  should,  of  course,  occupy  inde- 
pendent quarters  from  the  boar  pigs.  The  boar  is  often 
allowed  to  run  with  the  bred  sows,  which  is  not  objec- 
tionable so  long  as  he  behaves  himself.  It  will  facilitate 
his  care  and  generally  improve  his  opportunity  for  needed 
exercise.  Old  boars  may  in  most  cases  be  turned  to- 
gether after  removing  their  tusks,  but  their  initial  en- 
counters should  be  supervised  closely  to  prevent  any 
serious  injury  to  either.  After  supremacy  has  been  de- 
cided, they  will  be  contented  and  will  do  better  together 
than  if  kept  separate. 

Housing. 

The  hog  is  more  or  less  sensitive  to  the  extremes  of 
heat  and  cold.     In  the  northern  latitudes,  warm  houses 


Management  and  Feeding  in  Winter  35 

are  necessary  during  the  winter  in  order  to  maintain  thrift 
and  save  feed.  All  the  classes  of  hogs  must  have  com- 
fortable quarters  in  order  to  do  well.  This  is  a  principle 
in  live-stock  management  which  no  farm  can  afford  to 
ignore.  The  financial  loss  which  results  from  undue 
exposure  and  chill  is  more  than  would  be  sufficient  to  pro- 
vide suitable  structures.  The  hog-house  must  be  warm 
without  being  close,  and  the  beds  must  be  clean  and  dry 
and  free  from  much  dust. 

The  question  as  to  the  best  type  of  house  must  be 
determined  by  the  conditions.  From  the  standpoint 
of  the  hog,  any  house  which  is  rain  and  wind-proof, 
adequately  ventilated  without  being  drafty,  and  which 
has  a  dry  floor,  is  satisfactory  if  kept  clean.  Provision 
should  be  made  for  admitting  to  the  interior  as  much 
direct  sunlight  as  possible,  for  light  is  one  of  the  most 
potent  means  of  destroying  disease  germs  and  helps  to 
maintain  dryness.  Such  a  house  need  not  be  elaborate 
nor  expensive.  In  order  to  make  the  proper  grading  of 
the  herd  possible,  the  use  of  several  houses  is  desirable 
under  most  conditions.  If  these  are  portable,  they  may 
be  so  placed  in  the  pasture  or  lots  as  to  encourage  exercise, 
an  added  advantage  for  this  type  of  shelter. 

Sows  which  are  heavy  in  pig  should  not  be  allowed  to 
sleep  together  in  large  numbers,  for  they  may  be  injured 
by  crowding  and  the  tendency  to  pile  up  badly  in  the 
coldest  weather.  High  door-sills  are  dangerous  for  preg- 
nant sows,  frequently  causing  sprains  and  lameness,  and 
occasionally  abortion.  The  fall  pigs  should  have  the 
warmest  quarters  available.  A  low  shed  partly  open  on 
the  south  and  connected  with  a  cement  feeding  floor 
makes  a  satisfactory  and  practical  arrangement  for  the 
fattening  shotes. 


36  Pork  Production 

Sanitation. 

One  of  the  conditions  of  good  health  is  sanitary  sur- 
roundings. In  the  winter  management  of  the  breeding 
herd,  the  sleeping  quarters  should  be  the  chief  concern 
in  the  effort  to  maintain  healthful  conditions.  No  hog 
can  thrive  if  his  bed  is  damp  or  dusty.  Rheumatism, 
bad  colds,  coughs,  and  pneumonia  are  the  ailments  most 
commonly  the  result  of  overcrowded  dusty  sleeping 
quarters.  Such  conditions  not  only  cause  irritation  to 
the  nasal  and  bronchial  passages  and  induce  colds  and 
rheumatism,  but  the  dust  particles  may  carry  the  germs 
of  disease  like  cholera  and  tuberculosis.  There  should 
be  enough  air  to  prevent  steaming  and  the  quarters  should 
be  cleaned  with  sufficient  frequency  to  keep  them  clean 
and  free  from  dust. 

The  frequency  with  which  the  bedding  should  be 
changed  and  the  quarters  cleaned  depends  chiefly  on 
the  weather  and  the  character  of  the  floors.  When  the 
weather  is  cold  and  things  are  frozen  up  tight,  it  is  much 
easier  to  keep  the  quarters  dry  and  sanitary  than  when 
the  weather  is  warm  and  the  ground  soft.  Likewise, 
well-constructed  buildings  with  tight  floors  require  much 
less  work  to  keep  clean  than  do  poorly  constructed  houses 
with  leaky  roofs  and  dirt  floors.  As  a  rule,  the  houses 
should  be  cleaned  thoroughly  once  a  week.  When  the 
bedding  has  been  removed,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  lay  the  dust 
by  sprinkling  with  crude  oil.  An  occasional  spraying 
with  a  strong  disinfectant  is  desirable,  also,  to  keep  the 
quarters  from  harboring  lice  and  disease  germs.  When 
the  weather  is  cold,  bedding  should  be  supplied  in  liberal 
quantities ;  when  very  warm,  the  less  bedding  the  better 
if  the  dust  is  kept  down  and  the  floors  are  dry. 


Management  and  Feeding  in  Winter  37 


Water. 


The  water  supply  should  be  clean  and  fresh  and  easily 
accessible.  Pregnant  sows  and  young  pigs  especially 
require  considerable  water  to  satisfy  their  needs.  When 
the  water  is  ice-cold,  the  tendency  is  for  hogs  to  drink 
less  than  they  need.  Furthermore,  that  which  is  drunk 
must  be  raised  to  the  temperature  of  the  body,  which 
necessitates  the  sacrifice  of  considerable  food  energy 
when  the  weather  is  cold.  When  the  water  is  given  with 
the  feed,  it  will  pay  to  heat  it.  Ordinarily,  the  effort 
should  be  made  to  get  them  to  take  as  much  water  as  they 
will.  Patented  watering  devices  should  be  cleaned  fre- 
quently, for  they  sometimes  become  contaminated  and 
may  prove  a  constant  source  of  infection.  The  water 
in  such  devices  should  be  kept  as  warm  as  possible  by 
banking  manure  about  them  or  by  the  use  of  heaters. 

Exercise. 

The  amount  of  exercise  which  the  pregnant  sows  receive 
during  the  winter  bears  an  intimate  relationship  to  the 
strength  and  activity  of  the  pigs  which  they  produce  in 
the  spring,  to  the  ease  of  pigging,  and  the  promptness  of 
their  recovery,  and  to  their  general  thrift  and  health 
during  the  gestation  period.  The  reliability  of  the  boar 
during  the  breeding  season  is  conditioned  on  his  oppor- 
tunity for  taking  exercise  throughout  the  seasons  when  he 
is  not  in  breeding  service.  Neglect  of  this  during  the 
winter  is  often  responsible  for  disappointing  results  in  the 
breeding  season.  The  young  gilts  and  boars  must  have 
exercise  if  they  are  to  attain  the  healthy  development  re- 
quired for  successful  lives  in  the  breeding  herd.  The  ex- 
periences of  hog-men  are  so  unanimous  on  these  points  that 


38  Pork  Production 

no  experimental  proof  is  necessary  to  establish  them  as 
important  facts. 

Weak  pigs  may  be  caused  by  several  factors,  but  that 
limited  exercise  is  one  of  them  cannot  be  doubted.  When 
the  winter  is  severe  and  the  snowfall  heavy,  the  spring 
pig  crop  is  generally  short.  Under  these  conditions  the 
sows  stay  close  to  their  beds  and  take  little  or  no  exercise, 
with  the  result  that  the  mortality  among  the  pigs  at 
birth  is  abnormally  high  and  trouble  is  more  frequently 
experienced  with  the  sows  in  giving  birth  to  their  pigs. 
Exercise  promotes  a  loose  open  condition  of  the  bowels 
and  does  much  to  maintain  a  healthful  functioning  of 
the  other  organs  of  elimination.  Exercise  contributes 
strength  and  vitality,  reduces  the  chances  of  disease, 
costs  nothing,  and  is  an  indispensable  factor  in  the  main- 
tenance of  health  and  breeding  thrift. 

As  a  rule,  the  breeding  hogs  will  take  sufficient  exercise 
if  given  the  opportunity.  With  plenty  of  range,  access 
to  pastures,  stubble  land,  or  stock  fields,  the  sows  and 
gilts  will  be  out  most  of  the  time  if  their  rations  are  prop- 
erly restricted.  When  their  range  is  limited  because  of 
deep  snow  or  ice  or  for  other  reasons,  the  practice  of 
scattering  on  the  ground  some  grain,  sheaf  oats,  barley, 
or  legume  hay  for  them  to  work  over  will  encourage 
exercise  by  keeping  them  out  and  on  their  feet.  By 
having  the  sleeping  quarters  placed  at  the  far  end  of  the 
pastures  or  lots,  they  will  be  compelled  to  exercise  at 
feeding  time.  Although  exercise  is  imperative,  sows 
heavy  in  pig  should  not  be  compelled  to  push  their  way 
through  snowdrifts  in  order  to  get  to  their  feed  or  sleep- 
ing quarters.  Icy  places  should  be  made  safe  by  covering 
with  straw,  ashes,  or  litter  of  some  kind. 


Management  and  Feeding  in  Winter  39 


FEEDING   PREGNANT   SOWS  AND   GILTS 

Two  principal  objects  should  be  sought  in  the  winter 
feeding  of  sows  due  to  farrow  in  the  spring:  first,  com- 
plete nourishment  for  the  sows  and  their  developing 
pigs  in  embryo ;  and  second,  economy. 

On  the  completeness  of  nourishment  depend  in  large 
part  the  general  vigor  and  strength  of  the  sows  at  farrow- 
ing time,  the  development  and  strength  of  the  pigs  at 
birth,  and  the  capacity  of  the  sows  for  milk  secretion 
after  the  pigs  are  born.  Good  feeding  also  requires  that 
the  rations  shall  be  cheap  as  well  as  balanced.  The 
cost  of  feeding  sows  during  the  pregnancy  period  repre- 
sents an  important  item  in  the  cost  of  the  individual 
pigs  at  birth,  and  the  initial  cost  of  the  pigs  is  an  impor- 
tant factor  in  determining  the  cost  of  pork  production. 

Demands. 

Before  discussing  specific  feeds  and  rations,  it  will  be 
profitable  to  consider  the  physiological  requirements 
of  the  sows  during  this  period.  Mature  sows,  those 
past  two  years  of  age,  require  food  for  two  purposes :  to 
maintain  and  provide  for  the  upkeep  of  their  own  bodies ; 
and  second,  to  supply  the  material  for  growing  the  embryo 
pigs.  Successful  feeding  of  the  mature  sows  during  the 
gestation  period  must  provide  the  nourishment  to  satisfy 
these  two  fundamental  needs. 

The  amount  of  feed  required  to  meet  the  demands  for 
maintenance  is  constant.  The  requirements  for  the 
growth  of  the  embryo  pigs,  on  the  other  hand,  increase 
more  or  less  gradually  with  advancing  pregnancy.  Approx- 
imately 75  per  cent  of  the  growth  of  the  foetal  litter  takes 
place  in  the  last  month  of  the  gestation  period.  As  preg- 


40  Pork  Production 

nancy  advances,  therefore,  an  increasing  proportion  of 
the  rations  is  needed  to  nourish  the  developing  pigs. 

The  kind  of  food  materials  which  will  satisfy  main- 
tenance is  likewise  different  from  that  required  to  meet 
the  needs  of  embryonic  growth.  The  demands  for 
maintenance  are  met  by  food  materials  which  will  supply 
the  heat  and  energy  to  run  the  body  machine  and  make 
good  the  repair  of  body  waste.  To  meet  the  needs  of  the 
growing  pigs  in  embryo  there  is  demanded,  in  addition, 
material  which  will  produce  bone  and  muscle.  The 
first  is  largely  met  by  the  carbohydrates  of  the  ration, 
while  the  latter  can  only  be  derived  from  the  supply  of 
protein  and  mineral  matter.  A  ration  which  will  satisfy 
both  these  demands  in  proportion  is,  therefore,  a  balanced 
one. 

Young  sows  and  gilts  carrying  their  first  litters  must 
be  fed  with  reference,  also,  to  a  third  demand,  for 
their  own  growth  and  development.  The  first  need  of 
the  immature  sow  is  food  for  maintenance,  then  for  the 
growth  of  her  pigs  in  embryo.  If  any  food  remains  after 
these  demands  are  satisfied,  .it  may  be  used  for  the  in- 
creased growth  of  her  own  body.  If  the  supply  of  feed 
is  insufficient  to  supply  all  three  requirements,  the  last 
is  the  one  to  suffer.  The  maternal  instinct  of  the  sow  is 
so  strong  as  to  cause  her  to  sacrifice,  in  the  absence  of  suffi- 
cient nourishment,  her  own  energy  and  body  tissue  that 
the  foetal  litter  may  have  the  substance  for  growth. 

Corn  alone  as  a  feed  for  pregnant  sows. 

In  the  corn-belt  the  central  question  is  to  what  extent 
it  is  safe  or  advisable  to  make  use  of  corn  in  the  ration 
of  the  pregnant  sows.  Outside  the  corn-belt,  likewise, 
the  question  is  to  what  extent  the  home-grown  grains 


PLATE  II.  —  Above,  Pregnant  sows  should  have  range  during  the 
winter ;  below,  A  practical  method  of  feeding  alfalfa  hay. 


Management  and  Feeding  in  Winter  41 

can  be  used.  The  answers  to  these  questions  should 
also  suggest  economical  and  satisfactory  methods  of 
supplementing  these  cereals  with  home-grown  or  pur- 
chased feeds. 

In  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  of  hog-feeding 
problems,  no  fact  is  more  clearly  established  than  that 
corn  alone  for  pregnant  sows  is  not  a  good  feed.  This 
is  especially  true  during  the  latter  part  of  the  gesta- 
tion period  and  for  immature  sows  and  gilts.  The  com- 
bined experience  of  practical  feeders  and  the  results  of  a 
few  carefully  planned  studies  at  the  experiment  stations 
supply  strong  evidence  on  this  point.  The  train  of  evils 
for  which  exclusive  corn  feeding  is,  in  large  part,  held 
responsible  is  the  following:  a  tendency  for  the  pigs  at 
birth  to  be  weak  and  under-developed ;  a  larger  propor- 
tion of  dead  pigs;  a  feverish  irritable  condition  of  the 
sow  at  farrowing  time;  more  frequent  trouble  in  giving 
birth  to  their  pigs ;  greater  tendency  of  the  sows  to  develop 
the  pig-eating  habit ;  inability  to  secrete  a  normal  supply 
of  milk  for  their  pigs  after  birth,  all  of  which  means  a 
smaller  number  of  pigs  raised. 

A  sow  cannot  grow  a  strong  thrifty  litter  of  pigs  on  a 
diet  of  straight  corn.  It  does  not  possess  enough  of  the 
materials  which  make  blood,  bone,  and  muscle.  A 
pregnant  sow  so  fed  is  certain  to  approach  the  farrowing 
season  in  an  impoverished  state  of  health,  low  in  vitality, 
and  in  poor  condition  to  bear  the  strain  of  pigging  or  the 
later  demands  of  milk  production.  This,  with  the  weak 
under-developed  pigs,  is  the  fundamental  reason  for  the 
disastrous  results  just  enumerated. 

The  conclusions  of  practical  experience  regarding  the 
effects  of  exclusive  corn-feeding  to  bred  sows  are  supported 
by  recent  experimental  feeding  trials.  The  results  of 


42 


Pork  Production 


studies  made  by  John  M.  Evvard,  of  the  Iowa  Experi- 
ment Station,  are  extremely  pointed  and  full  of  practi- 
cal instruction  in  this  connection.  Following  is  a  tabu- 
lated statement  of  the  results  secured  when  corn  alone  was 
compared  with  corn  plus  different  kinds  of  commercial 
supplements  when  fed  during  the  pregnancy  period  to 
yearling  sows : 


TABLE  III.  —  STRAIGHT  CORN  VERSUS  CORN  AND  A  SUPPLE- 
MENT (Iowa  Experiment  Station).  TEN  YEARLING  Sows 
IN  EACH  LOT  1 


AVERAGE  DAILY  RATION 
FED  EACH  Sow 

4.97  LB.  CORN 

4.11  LB.  CORN 
.50  LB.  MEAT- 
MEAL  OR 
TANKAGE 

4.06  LB.  CORN 
1.13LB. 

LlNSEED-OlL 

MEAL 

Average  daily  gain,  each 
sow 

59  Ib 

78  Ib 

67  Ib 

Average     weight,      each 
litter 

1706  Ib 

24  42  Ib 

19  50  Ib 

Average      number      pigs 
farrowed    
Average     birth     weight, 

9.2 
1.85  Ib. 

10.1 
2.42  Ib. 

8.8 
222  Ib 

Vigor  of  pigs  : 
Strong,  per  cent  .     .     . 
Medium,  per  cent    . 
Weak,  per  cent  .     .     . 
Dead,  per  cent    .     .     . 
Condition,  or  fatness  of 
pigs: 
Prime    to    choice,   per 
cent  

41 
35 
20 

4 

26 

85 
5 
5 
5 

37 

76 
15 
5 
4 

48 

Good  to  medium,  per 
cent 

62 

56 

47 

Fair  to  inferior,  per  cent 

12 

7 

5 

Proc.  American  Society  of  Animal  Production,  1913. 


Management  and  Feeding  in  Winter  43 

All  three  lots  of  sows  were  kept  under  identical  condi- 
tions as  regards  shelter,  exercise,  and  the  like.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  experiment,  the  ten  sows  in  each  lot  were 
as  nearly  like  the  sows  of  the  other  lots  as  it  was  possible 
to  make  them.  Variations  in  the  results,  especially  the 
weight,  vigor,  and  condition  of  the  pigs  at  birth,  were 
chiefly  due,  therefore,  to  the  rations  fed. 

These  results  speak  for  themselves.  The  birth  weight 
of  the  pigs  from  sows  fed  straight  corn  was  nearly  a  half 
pound  lighter  than  that  of  the  pigs  from  sows  getting  in 
addition  either  meat-meal  or  linseed-oil  meal.  Chemical 
analyses  have  revealed  the  deficiencies  of  corn  in  bone- 
and  muscle-building  constituents,  and  the  results  of  this 
experiment  are  a  striking  demonstration  of  the  same  fact. 
The  starvation  to  which  the  embryo  pigs  in  the  corn-lot 
were  subjected  was  expressed  not  only  in  their  small 
size  at  birth,  but  also  in  the  smaller  proportion  of  strong 
pigs  and  their  thin  condition  of  flesh.  These  differences 
are  especially  significant  since  the  size  and  value  of  a 
pig  crop  for  any  year  are  limited  by  the  thrift  and  vigor 
of  the  pigs  at  birth. 

Although  corn  for  pregnant  sows  is  too  fattening  to 
be  safe  when  fed  alone,  or  economical  in  the  end,  this 
does  not  mean  that  it  is  not  a  desirable  feed  when  properly 
supplemented.  It  is  the  abuse  of  corn  in  the  hands  of 
careless  feeders,  rather  than  its  legitimate  use,  that  has 
caused  many  hog-men  to  condemn  it  for  breeding  stock. 

Other  grains  for  pregnant  sows. 

Outside  the  corn-belt,  larger  use  is  made  of  such  grains 
as  oats,  barley,  emmer,  and  wheat,  as  the  basis  of  the 
sow's  rations  during  the  winter.  Although  these  grains 
possess  a  little  more  bone  and  muscle-building  constitu- 


44  Pork  Production 

ents  than  corn,  they  are  not  satisfactory  when  fed  alone 
to  pregnant  sows.  Oats  is,  no  doubt,  the  safest  single 
grain  that  could  be  selected.  The  grain  sorghums, 
kafir  and  milo,  are  very  similar  to  corn  in  composition, 
but  are  not  so  palatable.  Rye  is  not  considered  a  good 
feed  for  pregnant  sows  unless  ground  and  fed  in  limited 
quantities  with  other  more  bulky  concentrates.  Kafir, 
milo,  and  wheat  should  be  ground,  and  usually  more 
satisfactory  results  will  be  obtained  if  they  are  fed  mixed 
with  other  and  lighter  feeds.  Oats,  barley,  and  ernmer 
also  give  better  results  when  ground. 

Value  of  legume  hays  for  pregnant  sows. 

The  legume  hays,  clover,  alfalfa,  cowpea,  soybean, 
field  pea,  vetch,  lespedeza,  when  of  fine  quality,  offer 
one  of  the  most  valuable  means  of  supplementing  corn 
or  other  home-grown  grains.  Not  only  is  hay  of  this 
class  commonly  available  on  every  farm,  but  it  supplies 
three  important  elements  in  the  brood  sow  ration;  viz., 
bulk,  protein,  and  lime  or  mineral  matter.  Furthermore, 
these  hays  generally  possess  the  desirable  quality  of 
being  laxative  in  their  effects. 

At  the  North  Platte,  Nebraska,  sub-station,  considerable 
data  of  value  have  been  accumulated  showing  the  value 
of  alfalfa  as  a  supplement  to  corn  or  other  grains  when 
fed  in  various  ways  to  pregnant  sows  and  gilts.  In  the 
following  table  is  presented  a  brief  statement  of  the 
results  of  feeding  gilts  one  part  of  chopped  alfalfa 
hay  mixed  with  two  to  three  parts  of  grain.  As  much 
of  this  mixture  was  fed  as  the  gilts  would  clean  up. 
When  the  gilts  showed  evidence  of  becoming  too  fat, 
the  proportion  of  grain  was  reduced  and  the  alfalfa 
increased. 


Management  and  Feeding  in  Winter  45 

TABLE  IV.  —  WINTERING  BRED  GILTS  ON  GRAIN  AND  ALFALFA  l 


YEAR 
DATE 

1909-'10 
Nov.  9- 

MARCH15 

1910-'ll 
Nov.  8- 
MARCH  14 

?911-'12 
Nov.  14- 
MARCH  19 

1912-'13 
Nov.  4- 
APRIL  1 

1913--14 
Nov.  4- 
MARCH  25 

AVERAGE 
5  YEARS 

Corn, 

Wheat, 

Rations  Fed 

Corn, 
Barley, 
Chopped 
Alfalfa 
Hay 

Barley, 
Rye, 
Wheat, 
Chopped 
Alfalfa 

Corn, 
Chopped 
Alfalfa 
Hay 

Corn, 
Chopped 
Alfalfa 
Hay 

Chopped 
Alfalfa 
Hay, 
Alfalfa 
Hay  in 

Hay 

Rack 

Number   gilts  in 

lot      .... 

25 

25 

25 

20 

25 

24 

Number  days  in 

experiment 

126 

126 

126 

148 

141 

133 

Pounds  grain  fed 

each   gilt   dur- 

ing the  winter 

519 

501 

513 

694 

650 

575 

Pounds       alfalfa 

fed    each    gilt 

during          the 

winter     . 

161 

253 

207 

237 

234 

218 

Pounds  grain  fed 

daily    per    100 

Ib.    weight    of 

gilt     .... 

1.90 

1.52 

1.75 

1.90 

1.90 

1.79 

Pounds  grain  fed 

daily  per  gilt  . 

4.12 

3.98 

4.07 

4.69 

4.61 

4.29 

Pounds       alfalla 

fed    daily    per 

gilt     .... 

1.28 

2.01 

1.64 

1.60 

1.66 

1.64 

Average          first 

weight  of  gilt  . 

156. 

201. 

188. 

181. 

166. 

178. 

Average  gain  per 

gilt     .... 

121. 

122. 

88. 

130. 

153. 

123. 

Cost  2  of  feed  for 

wintering     the 

gilt     .... 

$5.20 

$6.04 

$5.36 

$7.02 

$8.74 

$6.47 

1  W.  P.  Snyder.     Bull.  147,  Neb.  Exp.  Sta. 

2  Corn,  per  bushel,  $.47 ;  wheat,  per  bushel,  $.70 ;  barley,  per 
bushel,  $.40 ;  rye,  per  bushel,  $.56 ;  chopped  alfalfa  hay,  $10  per 
ton ;   alfalfa  hay,  $8  per  ton. 


46  Pork  Production 

The  system  of  feeding  followed  in  these  tests  insured 
large  gains  and  the  gilts  were  in  rather  heavy  flesh  at 
farrowing  time.  The  results  were  satisfactory  both  from 
the  standpoint  of  economy  and  the  number  and  quality 
of  the  pigs.  Rather  large  litters  of  healthy  pigs  were 
produced  and  no  trouble  occurred  at  farrowing  time. 

The  figures  showing  the  cost  of  wintering  the  gilts  are 
high  for  these  experiments  because  of  the  rather  large 
rations  fed.  If  the  gilts  had  been  credited  with  as  much 
of  the  gain  in  weight  as  remained  after  they  had  farrowed 
and  weaned  their  pigs,  at  the  market  price  of  pork,  the 
cost  would  have  been  considerably  reduced.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  prices  of  the  feeds  should  be  increased 
to  bring  the  results  more  nearly  in  harmony  with  present 
conditions. 

Methods  of  feeding  alfalfa  hay. 

The  question  of  the  best  method  of  feeding  alfalfa  hay 
to  bred  sows  in  the  winter  was  also  studied  by  W.  P. 
Snyder  of  the  North  Platte,  Nebraska,  sub-station. 
Table  V  gives  a  summary  of  four  years'  work  with  special 
reference  to  the  cost  of  maintenance. 

Lot  I  was  fed  shelled  corn  in  a  trough  or  on  clean 
ground  and  alfalfa  in  a  rack.  The  sows  in  this  lot  were 
given  all  the  hay  they  would  eat.  Lot  II  was  fed  ground 
corn  mixed  with  an  equal  weight  of  chopped  or  cut  alfalfa. 
This  mixture  was  moistened  with  water  at  feeding  time. 
Both  lots  had  access  to  a  small  field  of  fall-sown  rye. 

In  each  of  the  four  years  the  cost  of  wintering  the  sows 
was  lower  in  the  lots  fed  the  alfalfa  in  racks  than  when  it 
was  chopped  and  the  sows  compelled  to  eat  as  much  hay  as 
they  were  given  grain.  The  average  annual  saving  in  the 
cost  of  keep  was  $1.63  for  each  sow.  The  effect  on  the 


Management  and  Feeding  in  Winter 


47 


resulting  pig  crops  was  not  reported  and  it  is  assumed 
the  results  were  satisfactory  in  both  lots. 


TABLE  V.  —  WINTERING  YEARLING  AND  MATURE  Sows 

CHOPPED    ALFALFA    VERSUS    ALFALFA    IN    RACKS 


TIME 

AVERAGE  4  YEARS 
1910-1914 

Rations  Fed 

I 
Shelled 
Corn,  2 
Alfalfa 
Hay  in 
Rack 

II 

Ground 
Corn,  a 
Chopped 
Alfalfa, 
J 

Average  number  sows  in  each  lot    .... 
Average  number  days  in  experiment    . 
Average  number  bushels  grain  fed  each  sow 
Average  pounds  alfalfa  fed  each  sow    .     .     . 
Average  pounds  grain  fed  daily  each  sow 
Average  pounds  alfalfa  fed  daily  each  sow 
Average  pounds  grain  fed  daily  each   100 
pounds  weight  sow    

10 
121 
9.90 
86. 
4.43 
.70 

1.14 
341  Ib. 
93  Ib. 
$5.29 

10 
121 

8.84 
495. 
3.99 
4.05 

1.04 
337  Ib. 
96  Ib. 

$6.92 

Average  beginning  weight  of  each  sow     .     . 
Average  gain  each  sow  . 

Average  cost  3  of  feed  for  each  sow 

As  the  result  of  this  study,  the  author  of  the  experi- 
ment draws  the  following  conclusion :  " Feeding  a  very 
light  grain  ration  and  letting  the  sows  eat  alfalfa  at  will 
from  a  rack  proved  a  better  practice  than  mixing  the 
grain  and  chopped  alfalfa  in  equal  proportions  and  thereby 
compelling  the  sows  to  eat  a  pound  of  alfalfa  with  each 
pound  of  grain."  The  important  observation  is  also 

1  Bull.  147,  Neb.  Exp.  Sta. 

2  In  the  1913-  14  test,  ground  wheat  was  fed  instead  of  shelled 
corn. 

3  Prices  of  feeds,  same  as  those  given  in  Table  IV. 


48 


Pork  Production 


made  that  when  hogs  are  fed  alfalfa  hay  in  a  rack  it  is 
very  important  that  it  be  of  fine  quality. 

In  Table  VI  are  given  some  unpublished  results  of 
further  feeding  tests  conducted  at  the  North  Platte, 
Nebraska,  sub-station  by  W.  P.  Snyder.  It  is  an  interest- 
ing comparison  of  pregnant  sows  fed  straight  alfalfa  hay 
with  no  grain,  sows  fed  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  corn 
silage  and  cut  alfalfa  hay  with  access  to  alfalfa  in  a  rack, 
and  sows  fed  approximately  1  per  cent  of  their  weight  in 
corn  daily  with  alfalfa  fed  in  a  rack. 


TABLE  VI.  —  A  COMPARISON  OF  RATIONS  FOR  PREGNANT  Sows 
(mostly  mature)  DURING  70  DAYS  IN  WINTER,  1914-15, 
1915-16. 


1% 

EQUAL  PARTS 

SHELLED 

No  CORN, 

CHOPPED  ALFALFA 

RATIONS  FED 

CORN, 
ALFALFA 

ALFALFA 
HAY  IN 

HAY  AND  CORN 
SILAGE,  AND 

HAY  IN 

RACK 

ALFALFA  HAY  IN 

RACK 

RACK 

Average  feed  eaten  by 

each  sow  daily  .     .     . 

4.04  Ib. 

4.91  Ib. 

4.15  Ib.  corn 

corn, 

alfalfa 

silage 

2.18  Ib. 

4.151b.  chopped 

alfalfa 

alfalfa 

2.22  Ib.  alfalfa 

Average    initial    weight 

from  rack 

of  sows,  Dec.  25    .     . 

345  Ib. 

349  Ib. 

362  Ib. 

Average  gain  or  loss  in 

32  Ib. 

21  Ib. 

21  Ib.  loss 

weight  per  sow,  70  da. 

gain 

loss 

Average  birth  weight  of 

each  litter     .... 

25.1  Ib. 

21.4  Ib. 

21.2  Ib. 

Average     birth    weight 

per  pig     

2.30  Ib. 

2.23  Ib. 

2.26  Ib. 

Average  number  of  pigs 

raised    per    litter    to 

50  Ib 

6.8 

5.7 

4.7 

Management  and  Feeding  in  Winter  49 

It  would  appear  from  these  results  that  pregnant  sows 
are  unable  to  maintain  themselves  and  provide  for  the 
nourishment  of  their  embryo  pigs  on  bulky  feeds  alone. 
This  is  also  the  conclusion  of  practical  experience.  In 
both  lots  where  no  grain  was  fed,  the  sows  lost  in  the 
seventy  days  an  average  of  twenty-one  pounds,  and  the 
number  of  pigs  raised  to  the  litter  was  below  that  of 
the  sows  fed  some  corn.  Regarding  the  ration  contain- 
ing corn  silage,  the  author  of  the  experiment  states  that 
a  considerable  proportion  of  the  feed  in  this  lot  was 
wasted.  The  sows  picked  out  the  corn  in  the  silage, 
but  ate  very  little  of  the  fodder.  Close  observation  of 
the  sows  during  the  progress  of  the  experiment  thoroughly 
convinced  him  that  nothing  was  to  be  gained  by  feeding 
corn  silage  to  pregnant  sows. 

Additional  testimony  of  the  value  of  a  legume  hay  to 
supplement  home-grown  grains  for  wintering  pregnant  sows 
is  supplied  by  tests  made  by  W.  H.  Peters  at  the  North 
Dakota  Experiment  Station.  One  group  of  sows  was  fed 
a  grain  mixture  of  two  parts  crushed  barley  and  one  part 
of  bran,  by  weight,  fed  as  a  thick  mash  with  warm  water. 
The  second  group  was  fed  the  same  mixture,  but  had  in 
addition  free  access  to  alfalfa  hay  fed  in  cheaply  con- 
structed racks.  The  amount  of  the  mash  fed  in  each  group 
was  determined  by  the  condition  of  the  sows,  the  effort 
being  made  to  secure  the  proper  gains  in  both  lots. 

In  Circular  No.  13  the  author  makes  the  following 
observations : 

"Close  observation  of  the  sows  during  the  winter 
months  and  during  the  month  of  March,  while  they  were 
farrowing,  leads  to  the  following  conclusions: 

1st.  "It  was  possible  to  replace  one-third  of  the  grain 
ration  for  brood  sows  with  alfalfa  hay. 


50  Pork  Production 

2nd.  "It  required  1.04  pounds  of  alfalfa  hay  to  re- 
place 1  pound  of  grain. 

3rd.  "The  feeding  of  alfalfa  afforded  an  excellent 
means  of  getting  the  sows  to  take  more  exercise  than 
they  do  when  fed  grain  alone. 

4th.  "No  trouble  at  all  was  experienced  by  any  of 
the  sows  in  farrowing. 

5th.  "The  sows  fed  alfalfa  hay  farrowed  just  as  large, 
strong,  and  uniform  litters  of  pigs  as  did  the  sows  not 
receiving  it. 

6th.  "The  sows  fed  alfalfa  appeared  to  milk  better 
and  nurse  their  pigs  a  little  better  than  did  those  not 
receiving  hay. 

7th.  "The  results  obtained  in  this  trial  indicate  that 
it  is  practical  and  advisable  to  feed  as  much  alfalfa  hay 
to  brood  sows  in  winter  as  they  will  eat,  regulating  the 
additional  grain  ration  so  as  to  keep  the  sows  in  the 
proper  condition." 

Methods  of  balancing  corn  for  pregnant  gilts. 

In  Table  VII  are  reported  results  of  further  investi- 
gations by  Evvard  of  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station.  In 
this  experiment  a  study  was  made  of  the  relation  of  the 
rations  fed  pregnant  gilts  during  the  winter  to  the  weight, 
vigor,  and  condition  of  the  pigs  produced.1 

The  corn  fed  in  each  ration  was  ear  corn  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  lot  receiving  cut  clover,  when  it  was  shelled 
to  facilitate  mixing.  The  meat-meal  fed  was  the  best 
grade,  containing  60  per  cent  protein  and  14  per  cent 
mineral  matter.  The  quantity  of  corn  fed  was  estimated 
on  the  shelled  basis.  The  clover  was  of  only  fair  quality, 

1  Vols.  VII  and  VIII,  A.  B.  A. 


Management  and  Feeding  in  Winter 


51 


TABLE  VII.  —  SUPPLEMENTS  FOR  CORN  FOR  WINTER  FEEDING  BRED  GILTS 
(Iowa  Experiment  Station) 
FIVE  GILTS  IN  EACH  LOT 

2 

<M 

q 

2 

CD 

10'         CD 

1 

*o 

<N 

T3 

C3 
c3 

r/T 

M 

-3 

73 

'a 

CO 

cf 
1 

CO 

1 

o 

1 

03 
P. 

co 
o 

§ 

<0 

.a 
a 

'rt 
o> 

C  b 
.0 

ill! 

(M 

&5o6 

CO 

CO 

o 

<M 

CO 

CO 
i—  i 

^H           10 

^     3 

|«| 

-a 

05 
05 

iO 

3 

CO 

O5          IO 
1>         00 

VIGOR  OF  PIGS 

I 

0 

O 

0 

CO 
CO 
10 

CO 
00 

0         (N 

I 

05 

o 
<M' 

11 

8 

>o 

3 

iO 
CD         0 

i! 

05 

"*! 

i 

10 

o 

O5 

00 

I 

<N 

^00 
CD 

O5 

oq 

05 

co 

i 

1 

10 

00 

CO           O5 
00         00 

|i|ll 

S^ 

q 

CO 
CN 

•<* 

oo 

0 

a  i 

iMUJ(J| 

CO 

2 

oq 

•CO 

CD 
O 

q 

^         CD 
CD         t>I 

!^l| 

0 

s 

cb 
05 

O 
O5 

CO 

3   2 

|§gsgg 

<U3 

a 

O 

CO 

8 

S3    S 

AVERAGE  DAILY  RATION  FED  EACH 
GILT 

a  d 

o  o 

meat-meal  .  .  . 
corn 

meat-meal  .  .  . 

corn 
meal  mixture  l 
corn 

cut  clover 
molasses  .  .  . 
corn 

'o       'o 

a      a 

•  rH              "+ 

t-t                CJ 

III 
o    o    c3 

^JDXJJD^^JOJO^^XJ^-Q^ 

CO  <N 

CO  IO  CO 

CO  1>  00 
1>  0  b- 

CO  CD  l> 
iO  <N  CO 

SSIS 

CO  CO  O  <N 

~z   S 

0 

(M  T-(  CO 

6    ^ 

TH    O   CO    O   CO    "-" 

&    6 

52  Pork  Production 

but  quite  leafy,  while  the  alfalfa  was  of  the  third  and  fourth 
cuttings  and  choice  in  grade.  The  hay  fed  in  racks  was 
in  the  long  condition.  The  molasses  used  was  ordinary 
black  strap,  which  was  fed  by  diluting  and  sprinkling 
on  the  cut  clover.  The  gilts  selected  were  in  a  thrifty 
growing  condition,  and  averaged  approximately  210 
pounds  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment.  The  test 
covered  a  period  of  140  days,  beginning  with  the  start 
of  the  breeding  season  and  continuing  to  the  middle  of  the 
farrowing  season. 

The  best  rations  fed  in  this  experiment,  as  measured 
by  the  vigor  and  condition  of  the  pigs  farrowed  and  the 
weight  of  the  pigs  at  birth,  were  in  lots,  II,  III,  and  VII, 
the  first  two  receiving  with  their  corn  meat-meal  in  differ- 
ent proportions,  and  the  last  alfalfa  hay  in  a  rack.  The 
gilts  in  these  lots  also  made  the  most  rapid  gains.  The 
feed  cost  of  each  pig  at  birth  was  lowest  in  the  lots  receiving 
meat-meal. 

The  disastrous  results  of  exclusive  corn  feeding  to  bred 
gilts  are  here  demonstrated,  and  also,  different  methods 
of  balancing  this  corn.  The  benefits  derived  from  feed- 
ing a  small  amount  of  high  grade  meat-meal  or  tankage, 
as  shown  in  this  and  other  tests,  are  due  to  the  extreme 
richness  of  these  meat  products  in  flesh  and  bone-forming 
substances.  It  is  also  a  matter  of  considerable  practical 
importance  to  know  that  clover  or  alfalfa  fed  in  a  rack, 
if  of  fine  quality,  will  be  eaten  in  sufficient  amounts 
apparently  to  balance  the  corn  or  other  grains. 

Other  protein  supplements. 

In  addition  to  tankage  or  meat-meal  and  linseed-oil 
meal,  other  commercial  feeds  of  the  same  class  are  exten- 
sively used  to  balance  home-grown  rations  for  pregnant 


Management  and  Feeding  in  Winter  53 

sows  during  the  winter.  For  the  amount  of  dry  matter 
carried,  skim-milk  occupies  a  position  next  to  the  packing- 
house products  in  its  content  of  protein.  When  avail- 
able and  fed  with  judgment,  pasteurized  skim-milk  is 
one  of  the  cheapest  amd  most  desirable  supplements. 
Buttermilk,  when  not  diluted,  is  practically  identical 
with  skim-milk  in  feeding  value.  Whey  is  a  carbohydrate 
feed,  very  thin,  and  of  little  value  as  a  means  of  balancing 
the  grains.  Wheat  middlings,  shorts,  and  bran  are 
standard  hog-feeds  and  extensively  used  by  most  feeders. 
Although  containing,  on  the  average,  no  more  than  one- 
fourth  as  much  protein  as  high-grade  tankage,  or  one- 
half  as  much  as  linseed-oil  meal,  they  are  valuable  as  a 
part  of  the  grain  ration  when  their  price  does  not  exceed 
their  value. 

The  value  of  succulence. 

When  available,  green  crops  and  roots  constitute  a 
desirable  element  in  the  ration  of  the  brood  sows  during 
the  winter.  When  supplied  as  additions  to  the  regular 
fare,  they  furnish,  with  some  food,  the  property  of  suc- 
culence conducive  to  the  maintenance  of  breeding  thrift 
and  a  healthful  condition  of  the  digestive  system.  In 
the  South  green  crops  may  be  depended  on  for  the  main 
support  of  the  brood  sows  during  the  first  part  of  the 
winter.  In  Canada  and  the  northern  states,  roots  are 
frequently  used  as  a  large  part  of  the  daily  ration,  fed 
sliced,  pulped,  or  in  the  whole  condition.  In  Denmark, 
England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  roots  in  some  form  are 
considered  as  practically  an  essential  part  of  the  ration 
for  pregnant  sows. 

In  the  corn-belt  and  similar  latitudes,  as  much  use 
should  be  made  of  green  feeds  like  fall-sown  rye,  blue- 


54  Pork  Production 

grass,  tame  pastures,  clover,  and  alfalfa,  as  the  weather 
and  other  conditions  make  possible.  The  use  of  corn 
silage,  clover,  and  alfalfa  silage,  and  pea-cannery  waste 
has  been  favorably  reported  on  for  pregnant  sows  when 
the  feeds  were  of  good  quality.  When  fed  with  care  and 
with  the  main  purpose  of  supplying  succulence,  they  may 
be  used  in  limited  amounts  with  safety.  Corn  silage 
is  so  bulky,  however,  as  practically  to  exclude  it  from 
the  list  of  hog-feeds.  As  a  rule,  such  provisions  for  the 
breeding  herd  will  mean  more  exercise,  cheaper  cost  of 
maintenance,  and  a  more  vigorous  condition  of  health. 
The  necessity  of  feeding  salt  to  hogs  has  not  been 
clearly  established,  but  it  is  the  belief  of  the  best  hog- 
men  that  it  is  beneficial,  especially  for  sows  in  pig.  When 
the  sows  are  given  the  opportunity  to  eat  salt  at  will, 
they  do  not  take  more,  apparently,  than  their  systems 
need.  To  make  certain  that  the  needs  of  the  sows  for 
other  minerals  are  also  satisfied,  it  is  a  good  practice 
to  give  them  constant  access  to  a  self-feeder  containing 
a  mixture  of  the  mineral  elements  most  frequently  lack- 
ing in  the  ration.  A  combination  of  12  parts  charcoal, 
3  parts  of  air-slacked  lime,  ground  bone,  or  ground  rock 
phosphate,  and  1  part  common  salt  will  be  eaten  with 
relish  and  apparent  benefit.  The  addition  of  wood- 
ashes  in  the  same  quantity  as  the  lime  would  probably 
improve  the  combination. 

Conclusions. 

Summarizing  the  foregoing,  the  following  fundamental 
facts  may  be  set  down  as  practical  guides  in  compound- 
ing rations  for  pregnant  sows : 

First,  Every  ration  must  be  balanced;  i.e.,  should 
contain  more  muscle  and  bone-forming  material  than  is 


Management  and  Feeding  in  Winter  55 

contained  in  corn  and  most  of  the  other  grains.  This  is 
particularly  true  for  gilts  and  for  older  sows  during  the 
last  six  weeks  of  pregnancy. 

Second,  The  supply  of  protein  necessary  to  balance  the 
ration  should  be  obtained  largely  from  home-grown 
legumes.  If  this  hay  is  of  fine  quality,  access  to  pur- 
chased supplements  like  tankage,  linseed-oil  meal,  and 
shorts  or  bran  will  be  unnecessary,  in  most  instances,  until 
the  later  stages  of  the  gestation  period. 

Third,  Every  brood  sow  ration  should  contain  some 
bulky  material,  such  as  hay,  and  the  amount  eaten 
should  ordinarily  be  left  to  the  judgment,  or  instinct, 
of  the  sows  themselves. 

Fourth,  When  possible,  there  should  always  be  the 
opportunity  for  the  sows  to  get  some  green  or  other 
succulent  feeds,  largely  because  of  their  tonic  and  regu- 
lative effects,  and 

Fifth,  As  a  rule,  the  most  economical  ration  is  the  one 
most  largely  made  up  from  home-grown  sources. 

The  experimental  facts  presented  in  the  preceding 
chapter  and  the  principles  deduced  from  them  will  help 
in  formulating  specific  rations.  In  the  table  on  the  fol- 
lowing page  different  groups  of  standard  hog-feeds  are 
shown,  from  which  may  be  selected  the  ration  which  is 
available  and  cheapest  for  a  given  set  of  conditions. 

Any  of  the  rations  recommended  in  this  table  for 
mature  sows  during  the  last  six  weeks  of  pregnancy  will 
be  appropriate  for  bred  gilts. 

An  extremely  large  number  of  combinations  may  be 
selected  from  these  groups.  From  Group  I,  for  example, 
the  following  ration  for  the  corn-belt  may  prove  the  most 
economical  and  suitable  for  some  conditions :  First  ten 
weeks,  corn,  with  fine  quality  clover  hay  fed  in  a  rack; 


56 


Pork  Production 


Last  six  weeks,  12  parts  corn  and  1  part  tankage  (8 
per  cent),  by  weight,  with  fine  quality  clover  hay  fed  in 
a  rack. 


TABLE    VIII. 


SUGGESTED    WINTER    RATIONS    FOR    MATURE 
PREGNANT  Sows  * 


FIRST   10  WEEKS 

LAST  6  WEEKS 

Group  I 
Home-grown  grain  + 
fine  quality  legume  hay 

Home-grown  grain  + 
6  to  8%  best  grade  tankage  or 
meat-meal,    by   weight  ;    or, 
(12  to   16%  linseed-oil  meal), 
or,    (30  to  40%   middlings  or 
shorts),  or, 
(65  to  75%  skim-milk  or  but- 
termilk) , 
+  fine  quality  of  legume  hay. 

Group  II 
Home-grown  grain  + 
green  crops 

Home-grown  grain  + 
one  of  the  commercial  supple- 
ments  given  in  Group  1  + 
green  crops  or  roots. 

Group  III 
Home-grown  grain  + 
5  to  6%  tankage  or  meat- 
meal,  or, 
(10  to  12%  linseed-oil  meal), 
or, 
(25  to  30%  shorts  or  mid- 
dlings or  bran). 

Home-grown  grain  -f- 
7  to  10%   tankage   or   meat- 
meal,  or, 
(14  to  20  %  linseed-oil  meal),  or, 
(40  to  50  %  shorts  or  middlings 
or  bran). 

With  oats  or  barley  in  place  of  corn,  as  in  the  West 
and  North,  and  fine  quality  of  alfalfa  hay  instead  of 
clover,  the  amount  of  tankage  required  would  be  less,  and 

1  The  percentages  given  apply  to  the  entire  concentrated  part 
of  the  ration,  including  the  supplement.  For  example,  6  per 
cent  of  tankage  means  94  parts  corn  and  6  parts  tankage,  rather 
than  100  parts  corn  to  6  of  tankage. 


Management  and  Feeding  in  Winter  57 

6  per  cent  might  be  better  than  8.  Furthermore,  the 
supply  of  protein  in  the  Northwest  might  be  purchased 
more  cheaply  in  mill  feeds  than  in  tankage,  in  which  case 
12  per  cent  linseed-oil  meal  or  25  per  cent  middlings  or 
shorts  should  be  used.  In  dairy  districts,  where  only 
cream  or  butter  are  sold,  skim-milk  or  buttermilk  would 
probably  supply  the  necessary  protein  in  cheaper  form 
than  any  of  the  other  supplements  listed.  In  the  South, 
where  the  hog-man  may  have  the  advantage  of  forage 
crops  a  good  part  of  the  winter,  a  ration  selected  from 
Group  II  would  probably  most  nearly  fit  his  conditions. 
In  Group  III  are  suggested  combinations  for  those  condi- 
tions when  good  hay,  roots,  or  other  succulent  feeds 
are  not  available.  Instead  of  using  a  single  grain,  the 
conditions  may  warrant  a  combination  of  two  or  more. 
When  the  cost  is  the  same,  a  mixture  is  commonly  to  be 
preferred. 

A  ration  more  rich  in  protein  is  required  by  mature  sows 
during  the  latter  stages  of  the  gestation  period  because 
the  bone  and  muscular  tissues  of  the  young  pigs  are  being 
formed  more  rapidly  than  in  the  earlier  stages.  There 
is  an  increasing  and  more  or  less  regular  demand  for 
these  growing  constituents  from  breeding  to  farrowing 
time.  If  the  ration  used  during  the  first  part  of  the 
winter  is  gradually  changed  to  the  one  selected  for  the 
last  six  weeks,  the  actual  demands  of  the  mature  sow  will 
be  met  approximately. 

Bred  gilts  under  a  year  old  and  yearling  sows  need  a 
larger  proportion  of  protein  in  their  rations  than  recom- 
mended in  the  above  table  for  mature  sows.  Partic- 
ularly is  this  true  for  the  first  part  of  the  pregnancy  period. 
The  gilt,  in  addition  to  the  requirements  for  maintenance 
and  the  growth  of  her  embryo  litter,  must  have  food  for 


58  Pork  Production 

her  own  growth  if  the  effects  of  the  early  breeding  are 
not  to  prove  detrimental  to  her  future  development. 
During  the  last  six  weeks,  the  need  for  protein  supple- 
ments is  believed  to  be  practically  the  same  for  the  gilts  as 
for  the  mature  sows.  The  reasons  for  this  are  that  the 
older  sows  are  fed  a  lighter  ration  for  their  weight,  while 
the  demands  made  on  them  by  the  growing  litter  in 
utero  is  larger  because  of  its  size. 

Amount  to  feed. 

In  feeding  pregnant  sows,  the  purpose  should  be  to 
feed  just  that  amount  which  will  bring  each  sow  to  the 
farrowing  season  in  the  condition  of  flesh  which  will  best 
enable  her  to  perform  for  her  pigs  her  full  duty  as  a  mother. 
Even  with  a  balanced  ration,  plenty  of  exercise,  and 
comfortable  quarters,  it  is  possible  by  careless  feeding 
to  ruin  or  greatly  reduce  the  chances  of  a  good  pig  crop. 
At  least  one-half  of  the  successful  feeding  of  breeding 
stock  is  in  the  careful  regulation  of  the  amount  fed.  The 
sows  must  be  neither  too  fat  nor  too  thin.  The  extremely 
fat  sow  is  a  pig  killer  and  a  poor  milker,  and,  as  a  result 
of  her  usual  indisposition  to  take  sufficient  exercise 
during  the  previous  months,  her  pigs  at  birth  are  weak 
and  low  in  vitality.  On  the  other  hand,  an  extremely 
thin  half-starved  condition  should  be  avoided,  for  such 
a  sow  will  lack  the  reserve  energy  necessary  for  the  proper 
nourishment  of  her  pigs  both  before  and  after  birth. 
The  ideal  is  to  have  the  sow  at  farrowing  time  in  what 
is  known  as  a  strong,  but  active,  breeding  condition. 

If  the  mature  sow  is  in  a  thin  active  condition  at  the 
beginning  of  the  breeding  season  in  the  fall,  she  should  be 
fed  to  gain  during  the  winter  from  75  to  85  pounds.  From 
the  standpoint  of  economy,  as  well  as  in  the  results  ob- 


Management  and  Feeding  in  Winter  59 

tained,  she  should  gain  as  much  during  the  breeding  and 
gestation  periods  as  she  loses  in  farrowing  and  the  sub- 
sequent nursing  period.  The  loss  of  weight  during  these 
times  will  depend  chiefly  on  the  number  of  pigs  farrowed 
and  the  ability  of  the  sow  as  a  milker,  and  cannot  be  pre- 
dicted. The  most  prolific  and  heavy  milking  sow  in  the 
herd,  however,  will  usually  make  a  gain  during  the  pre- 
vious months  considerably  in  excess  of  the  average. 

It  is  probably  true  that  every  brood  sow,  as  well  as 
every  other  breeding  animal,  has  a  best  weight  which 
varies  during  the  year  according  as  the  nature  of  her 
work  as  a  producer  changes.  The  diagram  in  Fig.  3 
represents  what  is  believed  to  be  the  best  approximate 
weight  curve  for  a  sow  a  little  above  the  average  in  pro- 
lificacy and  weighing  325  pounds  in  thin  flesh  at  the 
beginning  of  the  breeding  season.  The  variations  in 
weight  shown  from  breeding  to  weaning  time  are  based 
on  average  figures  obtained  from  a  study  of  the  weight 
records  of  a  herd  of  twenty  sows  through  several  breed- 
ing seasons.  This  study  has  led  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  herd  of  mature  sows  that  is  thin  to  start  with  will, 
if  made  to  gain  75  to  85  pounds  during  the  breeding  and 
gestation  periods,  be  approximately  of  the  same  weight 
and  condition  of  flesh  at  the  time  of  weaning  their  pigs 
as  they  were  when  the  breeding  season  began,  when 
properly  fed. 

According  to  this  curve,  the  sows  should  make  most 
of  their  gains  during  the  last  six  weeks  of  the  pregnancy 
period.  This  is  natural,  for  the  reason  that  the  pigs  in 
embryo  make  practically  75  per  cent  of  their  growth 
during  this  time.  If  the  sows  make  a  gain,  on  the  aver- 
age, of  one-third  of  a  pound  daily  for  the  first  sixty  days 
of  pregnancy,  one  pound  daily  in  the  next  thirty  days,  and 


Management  and  Feeding  in  Winter 


61 


one-half  pound  daily  during  the  last  three  weeks,  the 
rate  of  gain  will  closely  approximate  that  shown  in  the 
diagram. 

The  amount  of  concentrates  necessary  to  secure  this 
ideal  condition  will  vary  chiefly  with  the  kind  of  concen- 
trates fed  and  the  availability  and  quality  of  the  hay, 
grass,  or  other  succulent  feeds  which  may  be  supplied  in 
addition.  It  will  also  be  influenced  largely  by  the  weather 
and  the  type  and  disposition  of  the  sows  in  the  herd. 

In  Table  IX  is  the  summarized  record  of  the  average 
weight,  the  gains  made,  and  the  concentrates  fed  each 
hundredweight  for  101  mature  sows,  40  yearling  sows, 
and  155  gilts.  Most  of  the  data  on  which  these  averages 
are  based  have  been  reported  previously  in  this  chapter. 
(See  Tables  III,  IV,  V,  and  VII.)  In  twelve  of  the  nine- 
teen rations  fed  these  sows,  alfalfa  or  clover  hay  was 
given  in  addition  to  the  concentrates.  Most  of  the  rations 
fed  were  well  balanced. 


TABLE  IX.  —  AMOUNT  OF  CONCENTRATES  FED  PREGNANT  Sows 
IN  WINTER 


AGE  OF  Sows 

AVERAGE 
WEIGHT  OF 
Sows 

AVERAGE  GAIN 
EACH  Sow 

CONCENTRATES 
FED  DAILY 
EACH  100# 
WEIGHT 

Average  for  101  mature 
sows      

Ib. 
387 

Ib. 
90 

Ib. 

1.07 

Average  for  40  yearling 
sows 

306 

84 

1  62 

Average  for  155  gilts  . 

243 

94 

1.61 

These  figures  show  that  when  mature  sows  have  access 
to  alfalfa,  a  daily  ration  equal  in  amount  of  concentrates 
to  1  per  cent  of  their  weight  was  approximately  sufficient 


62  Pork  Production 

to  secure  an  adequate  gain  during  the  pregnancy  period. 
In  view  of  the  fact  that  they  will  eat  treble  this  amount 
if  given  the  opportunity,  the  folly  of  measuring  the  amount 
fed  by  the  appetite  is  apparent.  In  practice,  the  only 
safe  rule  to  follow  is  to  measure  the  amount  by  the  condi- 
tion and  weight  of  the  sows. 

The  gilts  were  fed,  on  the  average,  1.61  pounds  of  con- 
centrates daily  for  each  hundredweight,  and  made  the 
average  gain  of  94  pounds  during  the  pregnancy  period. 
The  gilts  fed  at  the  North  Platte,  Nebraska,  station  re- 
ceived chopped  alfalfa  hay  with  their  grain,  while  those 
at  the  Iowa  station  were  not  given  any  roughage. 

Gilts  must  be  fed  more  heavily  during  the  pregnancy 
period  than  mature  sows  because  in  addition  to  the 
demands  for  maintenance  and  the  developing  pigs,  their 
own  requirements  for  growth  should  be  provided  for. 
Although  their  loss  of  weight  at  farrowing  time  and 
during  the  suckling  period  is  less  than  with  mature  sows, 
their  gains  may  safely  be  made  larger.  In  actual  prac- 
tice, the  purpose  should  be  to  keep  the  young  sows  thrifty 
and  growing  without  endangering  their  activity  by 
allowing  them  to  become  too  fat. 

The  extent  to  which  early  breeding  of  gilts  may  result 
in  a  permanent  check  to  their  development  is  largely 
determined  by  the  kind  and  amount  of  the  rations  fed 
during  the  first  gestation  period.  As  with  mature  sows, 
the  best  guide  to  follow  in  feeding  pregnant  gilts  is  to 
limit  the  amount  by  their  condition. 

Preparation  of  feeds  and  method  of  feeding. 

It  seems  to  make  little  difference  whether  the  sows 
are  fed  their  concentrates  in  a  wet  or  a  dry  condition, 
although  many  still  maintain  that  the  feeding  of  slops  is 


Management  and  Feeding  in  Winter  63 

essential,  especially  during  the  last  weeks  of  pregnancy. 
When  feeding  meals  and  supplements  like  shorts,  bran, 
tankage,  or  oil-meal,  it  is  often  thought  better  to  feed  as  a 
slop,  as  less  is  wasted  or  blown  away.  It  is  often  most  con- 
venient, also,  to  water  the  sows  with  their  feed,  and  when 
the  weather  is  extremely  cold  heating  the  water  and  feed- 
ing the  slop  warm  is  beneficial.  However,  more  and 
more  hog  raisers  are  being  converted  to  the  dry-feeding 
method.  That  the  sows  will  do  equally  well  and  that 
the  system  requires  less  work  and  bother  than  slop  feed- 
ing, is  the  verdict  of  those  who  have  tried  both  methods. 

Cooking  is  a  detriment  rather  than  a  benefit  with  the 
usual  hog-feeds.  The  effect  of  grinding  and  soaking  is 
slight  and  of  doubtful  value  in  practice,  except  with 
small  hard  grains  like  rye,  wheat,  kafir,  and  very  dry 
corn.  With  pregnant  sows  whose  rations  are  limited 
to  no  more  than  one-half  the  amount  they  are  capable 
of  eating,  special  methods  of  preparation  for  the  pur- 
pose of  insuring  greater  palatability  are  not  justified. 

The  self-feeder  method  of  feeding  pregnant  sows  and 
gilts  during  the  winter  would  appear  to  be  safe  when 
handled  under  favorable  conditions  by  a  careful  feeder. 
With  good  quality  of  alfalfa  or  clover  hay  cut  fine  or 
ground  and  mixed  with  ground  corn  and  the  proportion 
of  hay  so  regulated  that  the  consumption  of  corn  will 
not  exceed  the  amount  necessary  to  maintain  the  proper 
condition  and  weight,  good  results  may  be  secured.  How- 
ever, great  care  must  be  exercised  that  the  consumption 
of  corn  is  not  excessive.  In  the  hands  of  a  careless  feeder, 
the  indiscriminate  use  of  the  self-feeder  would  prove 
disastrous.  Under  general  conditions  it  is  doubtful 
whether  this  method  of  feeding  will  ever  prove  generally 
successful  for  feeding  sows  in  pig. 


64  Pork  Production 

FEEDING  THE  MATURE  BOAR 

It  is  as  important  that  the  mature  boar  be  properly  fed 
during  the  winter  as  that  he  have  a  reasonable  amount 
of  exercise  and  sanitary  quarters.  His  energy  and  breed- 
ing capacity  in  May  will  be  conditioned  largely  on  the 
care  exercised  in  his  feeding  during  the  winter.  Prac- 
tically the  same  combination  of  feeds  recommended  for 
the  mature  sows  during  this  time  is  suitable  for  the  boar. 
However,  since  under  average  conditions  his  quarters 
are  more  restricted  and  his  opportunity  for  grazing  more 
limited  than  the  sows',  his  ration  should  contain  a  larger 
variety.  In  the  absence  of  some  legume  hay  or  succulent 
feed,  wheat-bran  or  linseed-oil  meal  should  be  added  to 
forestall  any  tendency  to  constipation.  The  amount  of 
feed  should  be  limited  to  practically  a  maintenance 
ration.  Nine  out  of  every  ten  mistakes  in  feeding  the 
mature  boar  arise  from  supplying  him  too  liberally  and 
allowing  him  to  become  too  fat.  This  means  not  only 
a  waste  of  feed  but  a  serious  handicap  on  his  future 
breeding  powers.  The  amount  fed  should,  therefore, 
be  determined  by  his  condition  and  weight  and  any  gain 
deferred  to  just  before  the  opening  of  the  next  breeding 
season. 

FEEDING   THE   OPEN   GILTS  AND   YOUNG  BOARS 

The  prime  object  in  feeding  young  prospective  breed- 
ing stock  is  to  secure  a  strong  and  reasonably  rapid  de- 
velopment. With  this  end  in  view,  the  gilts  which  are 
not  bred  and  boars  of  the  same  age  should  receive  rations 
during  the  winter  which  will  promote  growth  rather  than 
the  production  of  fat.  Their  demands  for  bone  and 
muscular  development  should  be  supplied  and  a  tendency 


Management  and  Feeding  in  Winter  65 

to  over-fatness  and  inactivity  opposed.  However,  a 
reasonable  amount  of  fat  is  an  evidence  of  growth  and 
thrift  and  should  not  be  received  as  a  danger  signal 
and  with  starvation  rations.  The  nice  point  in  feeding 
hogs  of  this  class  is  to  give  them  just  the  amount  of  feed 
that  will  secure  good  growth,  yet  not  enough  to  permit 
them  to  become  too  fat.  The  experienced  judgment 
of  the  practical  feeder  is  the  most  valuable  asset  in  ob- 
taining this  result. 

The  best  ration  to  feed  will  depend  on  the  conditions, 
especially  the  supply  and  price  of  feeds.  In  practice, 
the  same  ration  fed  the  bred  gilts  will  be  suitable  and 
most  practical  for  the  open  gilts  and  young  boars.  During 
much  of  the  winter,  in  fact,  the  gilts  may  be  fed  in  the 
same  troughs. 


THE  FEED  COST  OF  WINTERING  PREGNANT  SOWS 

The  cost  of  feeding  a  pregnant  sow  during  the  winter 
is  subject  to  wide  fluctuations,  largely  due  to  variations 
in  the  price  of  feeds  and  also  to  the  opportunity  and  judg- 
ment of  the  feeder  in  the  selection  of  the  rations.  Varia- 
tions in  the  weather  and  other  natural  conditions  are 
also  influences  which  cannot  be  estimated.  It  is  be- 
lieved, however,  that  the  practical  need  for  basal  figures 
on  the  cost  of  producing  pork  is  great  enough  to  warrant 
study  at  this  time,  even  in  the  absence  of  any  systematic 
and  extended  investigations  on  which  to  base  the  study. 

Basing  the  calculations  for  mature  sows  on  the  average 
number  of  pounds  of  concentrates  and  other  feed  re- 
quired to  produce,  according  to  experimental  tests,  the 
amount  of  gain  desired  during  the  winter,  it  is  possible 
to  obtain  reliable  figures  fairly  representative  of  average 


66 


Pork  Production 


conditions.  According  to  the  data  reported  earlier,  a 
mature  pregnant  sow,  weighing  on  the  average  350  pounds 
in  the  middle  of  the  winter,  may  be  fed  to  gain  90  pounds 
during  the  126  days  on  a  daily  ration,  approximately, 
of  3.75  pounds  of  concentrates,  mostly  corn,  and  1.65 
pounds  of  alfalfa  hay.  (See  page  61.)  For  a  gain  of 
75  pounds,  3.50  pounds  of  concentrates  and  1.50  pounds 
of  fine  quality  alfalfa  hay  would  probably  be  sufficient. 
According  to  the  Scandinavian  feed  unit  system,1  1.50 
pounds  of  alfalfa  hay  is  equivalent  in  feed  value  to  .75 
pound  of  concentrates  like  corn,  wheat,  shorts,  or  linseed- 
oil  meal.  Reducing  the  hay  to  terms  of  grain,  or  feed 
units,  the  daily  ration  would  be  4.25  feed  units  for  a  sow 
averaging  350  pounds.  Charging  at  the  rates  of  1  cent 
to  2J  cents  for  each  feed  unit,  or  pound  of  concentrates, 
the  cost  would  be  as  represented  in  Table  X. 

TABLE  X.  —  AVERAGE  COST  OP  FEEDING  101  MATURE  PREG- 
NANT Sows  DURING  THE  WINTER 


POUNDS  OF  CON- 
CENTRATES FED 
DAILY 

POUNDS  OF  AL- 
FALFA HAY  FED 
DAILY 

TOTAL  FEED 
UNITS  FED 
DAILY 

PRICE  PER  FEED 
UNIT 

TOTAL  COST 
126  DAYS 

• 

1  cent 

$  5.35 

lj  cents 

$  6.70 

3.50  Ib. 

1£  cents 

$  8.02 

mostly  corn 

1.50  Ib. 

4.25 

If  cents 

$  9.37 

2    cents 

$10.71 

2|  cents 

$13.39 

1  Henry  and  Morrison :  "  Feeds  and  Feeding."  A  feed  unit 
is  a  pound  of  concentrated  feed.  One  pound  of  corn,  1  pound 
of  shorts  or  middlings,  1  pound  of  linseed-oil  meal,  or  1  pound 
of  tankage,  etc.,  is  equal  to  one  feed  unit;  while  1.4  pounds  of 
bran,  1.1  pounds  oats,  6  pounds  of  skim-milk,  12  pounds  of  whey, 
or  2  pounds  of  alfalfa  are  equivalent  to  one  feed  unit. 


Management  and  Feeding  in  Winter 


67 


The  rates  of  charges  used  above  are  practically  equiva- 
lent to  corn  at  56  cents,  70  cents,  84  cents,  98  cents,  $1.12, 
and  $1 .40  a  bushel,  respectively.  By  the  use  of  some  legume 
hay  of  fine  quality  and  a  limited  use  of  some  nitrogenous 
or  protein  supplement  during  the  last  six  weeks  of  preg- 
nancy, the  feed  cost  under  average  conditions  would  be 
reduced  about  10  per  cent. 


TABLE    XI.  —  AVERAGE    COST    OF     FEEDING    155    PREGNANT 
GILTS  DURING  THE  WINTER 


TOTAL  AVERAGE 
FEED  UNITS  FED 
DAILY  EACH  GILT 

TOTAL  AVERAGE 
GAIN  EACH  GILT 
126  DAYS 

PRICE  OF  FEED 
UNIT 

TOTAL  COST  126 
DAYS 

at  1  cent 

$  5.67 

at  lj  cents 

$  7.09 

4.50 

94  lb. 

at  H  cents 

$  8.50 

at  If  cents 

$  9.92 

at  2    cents 

$11.34 

at  2|  cents 

$14.17 

TABLE  XII.  —  ESTIMATED  COST   OF  FEEDING  THE  OPEN  GILT 
6  MONTHS  DURING  THE  WINTER  (200  to  300  lb.) 


CONCENTRATES,  OR 

TOTAL    CONCEN- 

FEED UNIT,  REQUIRED 
FOR  EACH  100  POUNDS 

TRATES,  OR  FEED 
UNITS,  EATEN  IN 

FEED  COST  FOR  180 

DAYS 

GAIN 

180  DAYS 

at  1    cent   per  lb. 

—  $  5.00 

at  11  cents  per  lb. 

-  $  6.25 

500  lb. 

500  lb. 

at  1^  cents  per  lb. 

-  $  7.50 

at  If  cents  per  lb. 

-  $  8.75 

at  2    cents  per  lb. 

-  $10.00 

at  2^  cents  per  lb. 

—  $12.50 

68  Pork  Production 

According  to  the  data  reported  in  Table  IX,  155  bred 
gilts  gained  during  the  winter  an  average  of  94  pounds 
on  a  daily  ration  of  1.61  pounds  of  concentrates  for  each 
hundredweight,  with  a  little  less  than  one-half  pound 
of  alfalfa  hay  for  each  sow  daily.  This  is  practically 
equivalent  to  4|  pounds  of  feed  units,  or  pounds  of  con- 
centrates, daily  for  a  gilt  weighing  an  average  of  250 
pounds  during  the  winter.  Figuring  the  feed  units,  or 
concentrates,  at  the  same  prices  used  in  Table  X,  the 
results  are  as  shown  in  Table  XL 


CHAPTER  IV 

CARE  AND  FEEDING  OF  THE  SOW  AND 
LITTER 

THE  foundations  of  a  successful  farrowing  season  are 
laid  in  the  winter  by  the  proper  feeding  and  care  of  the 
sows  during  pregnancy,  but  the  number  of  pigs  saved 
and  finally  raised  is  largely  a  question  of  the  thought  and 
attention  to  details  which  the  man  in  charge  is  disposed 
to  give  the  herd  during  and  immediately  following  the 
farrowing  season. 

CARE    DURING    THE    FARROWING    SEASON 

An  important  step  in  preparation  for  the  farrow- 
ing season  is  to  see  that  the  farrowing-pens  are 
ready  and  in  order.  They  should  be  given  a  thorough 
cleaning  and  then  sprayed  with  a  strong  disinfectant. 
It  is  very  important  also  that  the  floors  be  dry  and  warm. 
Probably  the  most  ideal  floor  is  concrete  covered  with 
wood,  but  a  good  dirt  or  clay  bottom  is  satisfactory  if 
kept  dry  and  free  from  dust.  Bare  concrete  or  cement 
floors  are  cold  and  often  become  damp. 

There  should  be  guard  rails  on  the  sides  of  the  pen 
projecting  out  8  or  10  inches  from  the  walls  and  about 
8  inches  from  the  floor.  These  frequently  will  save  a 
pig  from  being  crushed  by  a  restless  mother.  In  Fig.  4 
is  a  suggestion  for  a  pig-nest  which  may  be  placed  in 
one  corner.  In  very  cold  weather  this  is  of  value  in  keep- 
ing the  pigs  warm  as  well  as  offering  a  place  of  safety. 


70 


Pork  Production 


It  is  covered  with  loose  slats  on  which  straw  is  piled.  The 
straw  will  absorb  the  dampness  and  reflect  much  of  the 
heat  from  the  bodies  of  the  pigs.  If  kept  well  padded  with 
straw  below,  the  pigs  will  be  cozy  on  the  coldest  days. 

When  the  pens  are  thoroughly  dry,  they  should  be 
bedded  carefully.  The  kind  and  amount  of  bedding  to 
use  is  of  considerable  importance,  especially  the  latter. 
Any  good  absorbent  that  is  dry  and  will  lie  close  to  the 
floor  is  satisfactory.  Rye  or  wheat  straw  is  preferred 
to  oat  straw.  Cut  straw,  shredded  stover,  any  fine- 
stemmed  hay,  or  sawdust,  when  available,  are  highly 


FIG.  4.  —  Framework  in  corner  of  farrowing  pen  for  a  pig-nest. 

considered,  for  they  interfere  little  with  the  efforts  of 
the  newborn  pig  to  reach  the  mother's  teat.  A  great 
pile  of  loose  straw  is  an  evidence  of  mistaken  kindness. 
As  a  rule,  the  less  bedding  used  the  better.  A  very  thin 
covering  on  the  bare  floor  is  sufficient,  especially  when  the 
weather  is  not  severe. 

With  early  pigs,  especially  in  the  North,  provision  for 
the  supply  of  artificial  heat  will  often  be  desirable,  even 
with  a  good  piggery.  An  old  stove  or  heater  fixed  up  in 
one  end  of  the  hog-house  may  often  be  the  means  of  saving 
the  pigs  in  a  particularly  severe  spell  of  weather. 


Care  and  Feeding  of  Sow  and  Litter 


71 


Preliminary  care  and  feeding. 

The  sow  should  be  removed  from  the  general  herd  and 
placed  in  her  farrowing-pen  a  few  days  before  she  is 
expected  to  pig.  This  will  enable  her  to  become  ac- 
quainted with  her  new  quarters  and  will  serve  to  make  her 
more  contented  when  pigging.  By  this  procedujp  she 
will  also  become  accustomed  to  the  presence  of  the  herds- 
man, which  is  important  later  in  the  case  of  herself  and 
litter.  An  effective  way  to  quiet  a  nervous  sow  is  to 
give  her  a  daily  brushing.  If  the  sow  is  taken  out  from 
the  general  quarters  as  soon  after  the  one-hundredth  day 
as  accommodations  are  available,  the  chance  that  she  will 
farrow  outside  will  be  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

FARROWING  RECORD 


NUMBER 
OF  Sow 

DATE  OP 

SERVICE 

DATE  DUE 

DATE 
FARROWED 

NUMBER  AND 
SEX  OF  PIGS 

EAR-  NOTCH 
NUMBER 

51 

Nov.  10 

Mar.  2 

36 

Nov.  12 

Mar.  4 

etc. 

The  importance  of  a  record  of  the  date  of  service  is 
apparent  at  this  time,  as  it  is  impossible,  with  any  reliable 
degree  of  accuracy,  to  tell  by  the  appearance  of  a  sow 
just  when  she  will  pig.  The  usual  signs  of  approaching 
farrow  are  a  filling  of  the  udder  and  teats  and  a  mild 
spirit  of  unrest.  When  she  begins  carrying  litter  or 
arranging  her  bedding  for  a  nest,  she  may  be  expected 
to  farrow  within  twelve  hours.  Without  a  record,  con- 
stant observation  of  the  sows  is  imperative,  and  even 
with  it  is  still  desirable.  A  farrowing  sheet  should  be 
made  out  and  posted  in  a  convenient  place  in  the  barn. 
This  should  contain  the  number,  date  of  service,  and  the 


72  Pork  Production 

date  due,  of  each  sow  in  the  herd,  with  blank  spaces  for 
recording  the  date  of  farrowing,  the  number  and  sex  of 
the  pigs,  and  the  ear-notch  number  of  each  litter. 

Opportunity  for  some  exercise  should  be  given  the  sow 
after  she  has  been  removed  to  the  farro wing-pen.  It  too 
frequently  happens  that  she  is  shut  in  a  pen  with  no 
liberty  to  move  about.  This  is  certain  to  aggravate  the 
tendency  to  constipation  as  well  as  to  make  it  difficult 
to  keep  her  quarters  in  a  dry  sanitary  condition.  If  a  lot 
is  not  accessible  to  the  farrowing-pen,  the  sows  that  are 
up  should  be  turned  together  in  an  open  yard  for  a  part 
of  the  day  to  work  over  some  clover  or  alfalfa  hay. 

It  is  very  important  that  the  ration  of  the  sow  be  care- 
fully regulated  in  the  days  just  preceding  farrowing. 
Two  important  changes  should  be  made  in  her  feeding ; 
the  ration  must  be  made  more  laxative  and  the  amount 
reduced.  She  will  need  less  food  under  the  more  restricted 
conditions,  and  her  recovery  from  farrowing  will  be  more 
prompt  if  her  digestive  system  is  kept  well  cleared.  Any 
tendency  to  constipation  is  dangerous.  By  feeding  with 
the  grain  a  quantity  of  wheat-bran  or  linseed-oil  meal, 
her  droppings  will  be  kept  in  proper  condition.  A  safe 
rule  or  practice  to  follow  at  this  time  is  to  cut  her  grain 
ration  in  half  and  add  to  it  one-half  its  bulk  in  wheat- 
bran.  One  pound,  or  about  a  quart,  of  this  mixture  to 
the  feed  just  before  farrowing  is  sufficient. 

Care  at  farrowing  time. 

The  previous  treatment  of  the  sow  will  determine 
largely  the  results  at  farrowing  time.  If  she  has  taken 
plenty  of  exercise  during  the  preceding  months,  has  been 
fed  properly,  and  is  in  a  strong  active  condition,  she  will 
cause  little  concern.  With  all  preparations  made,  the 


Care  and  Feeding  of  Sow  and  Litter  73 

attitude  of  the  man  in  charge  should  be  that  of  "  watchful 
waiting."  With  a  large  number  of  sows  to  farrow,  he 
should  be  at  his  post  constantly  during  the  day  and  every 
three  hours  at  night,  especially  if  the  weather  is  severe. 

It  is  sometimes  desirable  to  remove  the  pigs  as  they  are 
born  to  a  half-barrel  or  basket  lined  with  straw.  With 
a  six-tined  manure  fork  or  long-handled  shovel,  this  may 
be  accomplished  without  annoyance  to  the  sow.  If  the 
weather  is  very  cold,  a  few  warm  bricks  or  a  jug  of  hot 
water  may  be  placed  in  the  basket,  or  the  pigs  may  be 
taken  to  a  warmer  room  until  dry,  when  they  should  be 
put  back  to  the  sow  for  nourishment.  If  the  sow  is 
nervous  and  irritable,  it  may  be  desirable  to  keep  the  pigs 
away  from  her  for  several  days,  giving  them  the  oppor- 
tunity to  nurse  every  two  or  three  hours. 

Gilts  which  are  not  in  good  breeding  condition  frequently 
have  trouble  in  giving  birth  to  their  pigs.  As  soon  as  it  is 
evident  that  protracted  labor  is  of  no  avail,  help  should 
be  given  promptly.  A  small  hand  and  arm,  thoroughly 
cleaned  and  smeared  with  vaseline,  is  the  best  instrument. 
In  fact,  the  unskillful  use  of  pig-extractors  is  usually  un- 
successful and  often  a  cause  of  injury  to  the  organs  of  the 
sow.  Without  some  knowledge  of  the  positions  of  the  fe- 
male parts,  she  should  have  the  attention  of  a  veterinarian. 

The  after-birth  should  be  removed  as  soon  as  the  sow 
has  cleaned  and  be  burned  or  buried.  If  allowed  to 
remain  in  the  pen  she  may  eat  it,  which  many  believe  will 
encourage  the  development  of  the  pig-eating  vice.  Dead 
pigs  also  should  be  removed  promptly  for  the  same 
reason.  The  next  day  after  farrowing  the  pen  should  be 
cleaned  thoroughly  and  fresh  litter  supplied.  Air-slacked 
lime  or  gypsum  scattered  on  the  floor  has  a  cleansing  and 
drying  effect. 


74  Pork  Production 

Needle  teeth. 

By  an  examination  of  the  mouths  of  the  pigs  at  this 
time,  it  will  be  found  that  they  are  all  born  with  the 
so-called  needle  or  black  teeth.  In  Fig.  5  is  shown 
their  appearance  at  birth.  These  teeth  are  normal, 
inclined  to  be  flat,  but  with  sharp  edges  and  are  generally 
brown  in  tinge  at  the  tip.  Needle  teeth  are  not  a  source 

of  trouble  to  the  owner,  but  to 
the  pig  with  whom  he  fights. 
These  are  temporary  tusks  and 
considerable  laceration  of  the 
mouth  and  gums  results  in  the 
usual  course  of  events.  These 
injuries  become  infected  and  a 
sore  mouth  is  the  result.  Hog- 
men  who  give  their  pigs  the 
most  care  believe,  as  a  rule, 
FIG.  5.  —  Showing  "needle"  in  removing  these  teeth  soon 

teeth  of  pig  at  birth.  /,.          i  •   ,1         rm  •         i        i  i     i 

after    birth.     This    should   be 

done  carefully  with  regular  forceps  made  for  the  purpose, 
or  with  a  pair  of  small  pliers.  The  effort  should  be  to 
get  a  clean  break  without  leaving  any  jagged  splinters. 

Feeding  just  after  farrowing. 

After  farrowing  the  sow  is  in  a  feverish  state  for  several 
days,  and  she  will  want  and  should  be  offered  no  food 
for  practically  twenty-four  hours.  She  should  be  given 
plenty  of  fresh  water,  however,  with  the  chill  taken  off. 
Special  care  should  be  exercised  in  her  feeding  the  first 
week.  The  promptness  of  her  recovery  and  the  success 
with  which  she  comes  to  her  milk-flow  will  be  determined 
largely  by  the  judgment  employed.  The  same  kind 
of  rations  should  be  used  after  farrowing  as  just  before. 


Care  and  Feeding  of  Sow  and  Litter  75 

Rather  thin  slops  of  meal,  containing  little  or  no  corn, 
will  give  the  best  results.  A  supply  of  shorts,  bran,  and 
ground  oats  or  barley  is  excellent  to  have  on  hand  during 
this  time.  A  safe  procedure  to  follow  in  feeding  is  the 
following :  the  first  day  give  her  plenty  of  water,  but  no 
feed ;  the  second  day,  give  her  one  double-handful  of 
meal  to  the  feed  (a  double-handful  of  meal  containing 
a  desirable  proportion  of  bran  and  shorts  will  weigh 
about  one-half  pound) ;  the  third  day,  two  double- 
handfuls  to  the  feed;  the  fourth  day,  three;  and  each 
of  the  three  succeeding  days,  four  double-handfuls  to 
the  feed.  This  is  equivalent  to  1  pound  the  second 
day,  2  pounds  the  third,  3  pounds  the  fourth,  and  4 
pounds  for  each  of  the  remaining  days  of  the  first  week. 
The  practice  of  giving  the  sow  a  mild  physic  the  day  after 
farrowing  in  the  form  of  1-^-  to  2  tablespoonfuls  of  Epsom 
salts  is  a  good  one.  If  the  sow  is  normal,  she  should  be 
brought  up  to  full  feed  during  the  second  week  by  having 
her  feed  increased  at  the  rate  of  -J-  to  1  pound  each  day. 

Pig-eaters. 

\ 

It  is  probably  true  that  a  normal  well-nourished  sow 
rarely  eats  her  pigs.  At  least,  sufficient  protein  and 
mineral  matter  in  the  winter  ration,  plenty  of  exercise, 
and  light  laxative  feeds  during  the  farrowing  season 
will  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  loss  from  this  vice.  A  sow 
fed  in  restricted  quarters  during  the  pregnancy  period 
on  a  diet  of  straight  corn  is  certain  to  have  a  natural 
craving  at  this  time  for  bone  and  muscle  foods,  and  the 
usual  result  is  that  the  pig  is  the  victim.  This,  after 
all,  is  simply  the  working  out  of  the  law  of  compensation, 
for  the  growth  of  the  embryo  litter  on  such  a  diet  was 
only  possible  through  the  extensive  sacrifice  by  the  sow 


76  Pork  Production 

of  the  lime  of  her  skeleton  and  the  protein  of  her  muscular 
tissues.  In  eating  her  pigs,  she  is  merely  taking  back 
her  own  body  substance  which  her  maternal  instinct 
caused  her  to  appropriate  for  the  nourishment  of  the 
litter  during  pregnancy.  A  balanced  diet  is  unquestion- 
ably the  best  prevention,  and  the  only  successful  cure 
for  habitual  cases  is  the  fattening-pen. 

Sanitation  and  exercise. 

Clean  dry  beds,  sunshine,  and  exercise  are  indispensable 
to  the  health  and  progress  of  the  pigs  tte  first  few  weeks. 
Damp  filthy  quarters  are  responsible  for  the  origin  and 
aggravation  of  nearly  all  the  pigs'  ailments.  Sore  tails, 
infected  mouths,  scours,  and  a  general  lack  of  thrift  are 
the  direct  results  of  such  conditions.  The  pigs  should 
have  the  opportunity  to  lie  in  the  sun  as  much  as  possible. 
Pigs,  like  plants,  will  not  thrive  in  dark  places.  Exercise, 
also,  seems  indispensable.  If  the  weather  outside  is  bad, 
they  should  be  given  the  liberty  of  the  alley  for  a  part  of 
each  day.  Fragments  of  paper  scattered  about  on  the 
floor  or  a  pile  of  loose  straw  will  have  the  effect  of  stimu- 
lating action.  Perhaps  the  ideal  condition  for  the  sow 
and  litter  is  supplied  by  the  single  cot  set  in  a  fairly  roomy 
yard  which  is  set  to  blue-grass.  Even  in  the  colder 
latitudes,  a  well-constructed  single  house  will  be  warm 
enough  for  the  pigs  after  they  are  a  week  or  two  old. 

Marking  the  litters. 

In  pedigreed  herds,  it  is  necessary  to  give  each  litter 
an  identification  mark  so  that  the  parentage  of  each  pig 
may  be  determined  later  by  reference  to  the  herd  record. 
In  herds  kept  exclusively  for  the  production  of  market 
pork,  such  a  record  is  desirable  to  make  more  certain 


Care  and  Feeding  of  Sow  and  Litter 


77 


that  the  future  brood  sows  shall  be  selected  from  the  best 
litters  and  prolific  strains.  The  scheme  universally 
employed  for  this  identification  is  some  system  of  ear- 
notches  made  with  a  special  ear-marker  or  an  ordinary 
harness-punch.  There  is  a  great  variety  in  these  systems, 
resulting  from  the  individual  ideas  of  breeders  and  the 
size  of  the  herds.  The  following  system  is  commonly 
used  when  the  number  of  litters  to  be  marked  is  not  large  : 

A  PLAN  OF  EAR-NOTCHING  FOR  IDENTIFYING  LITTERS 


NAME,  MARK, 
OR  NUMBER 
OF  Sow 

NOTCHES 
OUTER 
RIGHT 

NOTCHES 
OUTER 
LEFT 

NOTCHES 
INNER 
RIGHT 

NOTCHES 
INNER 
LEFT 

1 

1 

2 

1 

3 

1 

4 

1 

5 

1 

1 

6 

1 

1 

7 

1 

1 

8 

1 

1 

9 

1 

1 

10 

1 

1 

11 

2 

12 

2 

13 

2 

14 

2 

15 

2 

1 

16 

2 

1 

17 

2 

1 

18 

2 

1 

19 

2 

1 

20 

2 

1 

Etc. 

All  the  pigs  in  the  litter  are  given  the  same  mark.  The 
first  litter  farrowed,  according  to  the  above  plan,  would 
be  given  the  ear-notch  number  1,  one  notch  in  the  outer  rim 
of  the  right  ear,  the  second  would  be  litter  number  2,  the 


78 


Pork  Production 


third  litter  number  3,  and  the  like.  The  notches  should 
be  broad  and  deep  enough  to  be  legible  without  catching 
the  pig,  yet  not  so  large  that  the  ear  will  be  disfigured. 
The  notches  are  often  made  larger  than  necessary  since 
they  increase  in  size  with  the  growth  of  the  pig. 

A  second  plan  of  ear-notching  is  suggested  by  A.  J. 
Lovejoy  in  his  book,  "Forty  Years'  Experience  of  a 
Practical  Hog  Man."  According  to  this  scheme,  each 
notch  in  the  outer  right  ear  counts  one,  each  one  in  the 


—  I 


FIG.  6.  —  Illustrating  the  second  plan  of  ear-notching. 

outer  left  three,  in  the  inner  left  thirty,  and  in  the  inner 
right  ten,  as  shown  in  Fig.  6. 

In  this  scheme,  the  number  of  the  litter  is  determined 
by  adding  together  the  figures  for  which  the  notches  stand. 
For  example,  one  notch  in  the  outer  rim  of  the  right  ear 
would  be  litter  number  1,  while  two  notches  in  the  outer 
right  would  be  litter  number  2  (1  +  1).  Two  notches  in 
the  outer  left  would  be  litter  number  6  (3  +  3),  and  two 
in  the  outer  right  and  one  in  the  outer  left  would  be  litter 
number  5  (1  +  1  +  3).  This  plan  of  marking,  shown  in 
detail  below,  is  particularly  well  adapted  to  large  herds 
when  the  number  of  litters  exceeds  thirty  or  forty. 


Care  and  Feeding  of  Sow  and  Litter  79 

A  PLAN  OF  EAR-NOTCHING  ADAPTED  TO  A  LARGE  HERD 


NAME,  MARK, 
OR  NUMBER 
OF  Sow 

NOTCHES 
OUTER 
RIGHT 

NOTCHES 
OUTER 
LEFT 

NOTCHES 
INNER 
RIGHT 

NOTCHES 
INNER 
LEFT 

1 

1 

2 

2 

3 

1 

4 

1 

1 

5 

2 

1 

6 

2 

7 

1 

2 

8 

2 

2 

9 

3 

10 

1 

15 

2 

1 

1 

20 

2 

30 

1 

40 

1 

1 

50 

2 

1 

60 

2 

70 

1 

2 

80 

2 

2 

90 

3 

100 

1 

3 

A  third  plan  of  marking  is  shown  in  Fig.  7.  By  this 
scheme  the  number  of  the  litter  is  determined  by  the 
position  of  the  notch  on  the  ear.  The  outer  rim  of  the 
right  ear  is  divided  into  three  areas  numbered  1,  2,  3 
from  the  point  of  the  ear  back.  A  notch  in  the  forward 
third  would  stand  for  litter  number  1,  a  notch  in  the 
middle  would  be  litter  number  2,  while  one  well  back  in 
area  number  3  would  be  litter  number  3.  The  outer  left  ear 
is  divided  into  two  areas,  numbered  4  and  5  from  front  to 
back.  A  notch  in  the  forward  rim  of  the  left  ear  would, 
therefore,  be  litter  number  4,  while  one  in  area  number 


80 


Pork  Production 


five  would  stand  for  litter  number  5.  Each  notch  in  the 
inner  right  ear  stands  for  10,  while  each  in  the  inner  left 
ear  stands  for  30,  regardless  of  their  position. 

The  number  of  notches  required  is  reduced  in  this 
scheme  to  a  minimum.  Ninety  litters  can  be  numbered 
without  necessitating  more  than  two  notches  in  either 
rim  of  each  ear.  In  using  this  system,  care  must  be  taken 
to  place  the  notch,  particularly  in  the  outer  right  ear, 

LE"T-  ,30 


FIG  7.  —  A  third  plan  of  notching. 

in  the  exact  position  it  is  intended  to  occupy.  In  ex- 
amining the  ear  later,  care  must  be  exercised  that  notches 
in  the  second  and  third  areas  are  not  confused. 


FEEDING  AND   CARE  TO  WEANING  TIME 

From  this  time  on  until  the  pigs  are  weaned,  the  primary 
purpose  is  to  keep  the  pigs  healthy  and  growing.  In 
addition,  economy  in  the  selection  of  the  ration  should 
not  be  lost  sight  of.  The  thrift  and  development  of  the 
pigs  will  be  conditioned  on  the  extent  to  which  the  hog- 
man  successfully  eliminates  dirty  insanitary  conditions 
and  provides  the  combination  of  feeds  which  will  meet 
the  requirements  of  the  sow  and  her  nursing  pigs. 


Care  and  Feeding  of  Sow  and  Litter  81 

Feeding. 

After  the  sow  is  on  full  feed,  the  best  ration  to  give  her 
is  the  one  which  is  cheapest  and  most  productive  of  a 
large  milk  flow.  The  importance  of  feeding  a  ration  that 
is  stimulating  to  milk  production  is  so  great,  however, 
that  balance  should  not  be  sacrificed  to  economy.  A 
ration  of  straight  corn  would  be  cheap  and  convenient, 
but  ruinous  to  the  prospects  of  a  generous  flow  of  milk. 
The  amount  of  milk  a  sow  gives  determines  the  rate  of 
development  of  her  pigs  during  these  weeks.  Further- 
more, the  cheapest  gains  which  the  pig  will  ever  make  are 
at  this  time.  The  mother's  milk  is  an  ideal  food  for  the 
young  pigs,  and  it  is  a  matter  of  economy  and  good  judg- 
ment to  feed  so  as  to  stimulate  the  largest  production. 

The  sow  in  milk  should  be  fed  very  much  the  same 
kind  of  ration  as  the  cow  in  milk.  Feeds  containing 
a  sufficient  supply  of  protein  and  mineral  matter  are 
necessary  because  milk  is  a  muscle  and  bone-forming 
food.  The  ration  at  this  time  should  be  more  concen- 
trated and  contain  less  fattening  foods  than  the  one  used 
during  the  winter.  A  large  proportion  of  bulky  feeds 
would  mean  the  exclusion  of  the  necessary  nutrients. 
Practically  full  rations  should  be  fed,  also,  for  the  first 
six  weeks.  The  usual  home-grown  grains,  corn  espe- 
cially, do  not  contain  enough  protein  and  mineral  matter 
to  make  satisfactory  rations.  Consequently,  use  must 
be  made  of  some  one  of  such  feeds  as  tankage  or  meat- 
meal,  linseed-oil  meal,  shorts  or  middlings,  skim-milk  or 
buttermilk.  The  cheapest,  according  to  price  and  com- 
position, should  be  utilized. 

The  following  combinations  are  examples  of  good 
rations.  They  suggest  about  the  proportions,  by  weight, 


82  Pork  Production 

in  which  it  is  desirable  to  use  the  different  commercial 
supplements  with  the  ordinary  grains  in  order  to  have 
balanced  rations : 

(1)  (4  parts  corn+1  part  shorts) +  10%  tankage  or  meat- 
meal. 

(2)  (4  parts  corn+1  part  shorts) +20%  linseed-oil  meal. 

(3)  (2  parts  corn+1  part  ground  oats+1  part  shorts) +5% 
tankage. 

(4)  (1  part  corn +2  parts  skim-milk  or  buttermilk). 

(5)  3  parts  corn+2  parts  ground  oats+10  parts  skim-milk 
or  buttermilk. 

(6)  |  ground  barley,  ^  ground  oats,  ^  shorts. 

(7)  \  ground  barley,  \  shorts. 

(8)  1   part   ground   barley +1   part  ground   oats +2  parts 
skim-milk  or  buttermilk. 

(9)  i  ground  Kafir,  \  shorts. 

(10)   \  ground  wheat,  \  ground  oats,  \  shorts. 
NOTE.  —  The  above  rations  have  nutritive  ratios  of  1 :  5.27 
to  1 :  6.07. 

If  the  sows  get  a  bite  of  grass,  it  will  be  a  valuable 
addition  to  the  regular  ration.  Succulent  feeds  generally 
are  good  milk-producers.  Blue-grass,  rye,  rape,  clover, 
alfalfa,  or  other  legumes  are  available  in  many  parts  of 
the  country  at  this  time.  Sows  with  fall  pigs  should  have 
access,  if  possible,  to  some  legume,  which  will  aid  ma- 
terially in  properly  balancing  the  grains  fed.  To  make 
certain  that  the  sows  receive  sufficient  mineral  matter 
in  their  diet,  a  mixture  of  charcoal,  air-slacked  lime,  or 
ground  rock  phosphate,  and  salt,  in  about  the  proportions 
of  12  :  3  :  1,  should  be  provided. 

The  results  at  this  time  will  depend  very  much  on  the 
care  and  judgment  of  the  feeder  in  determining  the 
amount  fed.  Sows  that  have  a  normal  number  of  pigs 
to  nourish  will  ordinarily  need  full  rations.  The  average 
sow  loses  weight  during  this  period,  even  when  given  all 


Care  and  Feeding  of  Sow  and  Litter  83 

the  feed  she  will  eat.  According  to  actual  records,  sows 
will  lose  an  average  of  about  25  or  40  pounds  during 
the  lactation  period.  This  does  not  include  the  loss  of 
weight  in  farrowing.  The  heaviest  milking  sows  are,  fur- 
thermore, the  biggest  eaters  and  the  heaviest  losers.  Or- 
dinarily, therefore,  the  amount  fed  should  be  regulated 
by  the  appetite,  just  a  little  less  being  given  than  will 
be  taken  at  each  feed.  This  will  encourage  a  larger 
feed  consumption  and  result  in  cleaner  troughs.  In 
every  herd  there  are  sometimes  a  few  sows  with  only 
two  or  three  pigs.  These  sows  usually  employ  their 
feed  for  fat  rather  than  the  production  of  milk,  and 
when  their  pigs  are  about  five  weeks  old,  begin  to  take  on 
weight.  Such  sows  should  not  be  fed  full  rations,  but  an 
amount  that  will  about  maintain  their  weight.  Sows 
that  have  large  litters  and  are  heavy  milkers  may  be 
fed  three  times  a  day  with  advantage. 

If  the  sow  can  be  fed  individually  at  this  time,  it  will 
not  only  be  an  aid  to  good  feeding,  but  will  insure  more 
uniformity  in  the  pig  crop.  Two  or  three  sows  with  pigs 
of  approximately  the  same  age,  however,  may  occupy 
the  same  lot  and  be  fed  together  with  good  results.  The 
practice  of  running  the  sows  together  with  pigs  of  all 
ages  and  sizes  is  the  surest  way  to  produce  a  large  pro- 
portion of  runts.  If  it  is  necessary  for  several  sows  to 
occupy  the  same  quarters,  those  of  the  same  tempera- 
ment and  with  pigs  of  about  the  same  age  only  should 
be  put  together. 

The  pig-creep. 

When  two  or  three  weeks  old,  the  pigs  begin  to  take  an 
interest  in  their  mothers'  rations.  This  interest  should 
be  encouraged,  for  pigs  of  this  age  have  the  teeth  and 


84  Pork  Production 

digestive  apparatus  successfully  to  use  small  quantities 
of  solid  food.  The  sow  produces  her  maximum  milk 
flow  on  the  average  three  weeks  after  the  pigs  are  farrowed, 
and  from  this  time  on,  the  decreasing  supply  must  be 
supplemented  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  pigs,  whose  food 
requirements  are  increasing  with  each  day.  When  the 
sows  are  fed  individually  and  sufficient  trough-room  is 
supplied,  a  creep  will  be  unnecessary  for  at  least  the  first 
few  weeks.  When  possible,  however,  it  is  advisable  to 
have  a  pen  constructed  to  which  all  the  pigs  can  go  and 
eat  from  low  troughs  at  frequent  intervals.  A  small 
quantity  of  dry  shelled  corn  will  be  consumed  at  first  with 
the  greatest  apparent  relish.  Later,  the  shelled  corn 
should  have  added  to  it  a  supply  of  middlings  or  shorts  or 
ground  oats  that  have  been  sieved  to  remove  the  hulls. 
These  may  be  supplied  appropriately  in  separate  com- 
partments of  a  self-feeder.  The  mother's  ration,  minus 
such  bulky  feeds  as  oats  or  bran,  with  a  little  extra  shelled 
corn,  will  be  a  suitable  combination  for  the  pigs.  Pas- 
teurized skim-milk  and  buttermilk  are  of  the  highest 
value  at  this  time. 

These  pigs  should  not  be  fed  carelessly.  Wet  feed 
should  not  be  allowed  to  stand  in  the  troughs,  but  should 
be  cleaned  up  at  once.  Dry  feed  should  not  be  supplied 
in  such  quantity  that  it  will  be  in  the  trough  longer  than 
twelve  hours.  The  self-feeder,  when  used,  should  be 
carefully  adjusted  and  the  trough  frequently  cleaned. 
These  points  are  of  special  importance  in  eliminating  one 
of  the  common  causes  of  scours. 

Scours. 

Pigs  that  have  dry  clean  beds  and  plenty  of  opportunity 
for  play  and  exercise  in  the  open  are  not  subject  to  scours. 


Care  and  Feeding  of  Sow  and  Litter  85 

In  addition  to  unhygienic  conditions,  however,  there  are 
many  other  causes  of  this  ailment :  as  running  in  the  wet 
grass;  cold  damp  weather;  too  much  succulent  feed, 
especially  when  skim-milk  or  buttermilk  is  fed ;  irregular, 
careless  feeding ;  and  sour  filthy  troughs.  Any  modifica- 
tion of  the  mother's  milk,  resulting  from  feeding  fermented 
rotten  slops,  or  a  feverish  condition  of  the  sow,  is  also 
frequently  responsible  for  the  trouble.  The  first  step  in 
the  treatment  of  scours  in  young  pigs  is  to  remove  the 
cause.  The  second  is  to  cut  down  the  mother's  ration, 
and  also  that  of  the  pigs.  (See  Chapter  XXII.) 

Weaning. 

The  pigs  usually  should  be  weaned  when  eight  to  ten 
weeks  of  age.  If  they  have  had  up  to  this  time  the  advan- 
tage of  a  creep  and  good  rations,  they  will  scarcely  miss 
the  mother's  milk,  which  is  secreted  in  rather  limited 
amounts  at  this  time.  Those  sows  which  are  to  raise 
fall  litters  should  be  taken  from  their  pigs  at  eight  weeks, 
since  sows  usually  do  not  come  in  heat  while  suckling 
their  pigs,  and  early  fall  litters  are  desirable.  On  the 
other  hand,  sows  which  are  extremely  heavy  milkers 
and  which  it  is  not  the  intention  to  breed,  may  with 
profit  be  allowed  to  nurse  their  pigs  for  twelve  weeks, 
provided  they  are  liberally  fed.  A  few  days  before  the 
sows  are  removed  from  their  pigs,  their  rations  should  be 
reduced  materially.  This  precaution  will  tend  greatly 
to  eliminate  the  conditions  which  favor  inflamed  udders 
and  caked  teats  at  weaning  time.  It  is  commonly  more 
convenient  to  remove  the  sows  than  the  pigs.  Some 
recommend  that  the  sows  be  put  back  the  next  day  and 
the  pigs  allowed  to  nurse  partially.  This  may  be  de- 
sirable with  individual  sows,  but,  as  a  rule,  it  should  be 


86  Pork  Production 

unnecessary.  When  separated,  the  sows  should  be  put 
into  a  dry  lot  and  fed  only  scanty  rations  for  a  few  days 
until  their  udders  begin  to  shrivel  and  dry  up. 

Gains  made  by  pigs  from  birth  to  weaning. 

The  average  pig  in  a  well-managed  herd  should  make 
a  gain  from  birth  to  weaning  time  of  ^  to  ?  pound  daily. 
When  weaned  at  ten  weeks,  this  will  mean  a  weight, 
approximately,  of  26  to  38  pounds  when  taken  from  the 
mother.  But  under  the  very  best  conditions,  there  is  a 
wide  variation,  ranging  all  the  way  from  a  daily  gain  of 
.20  of  a  pound  to  over  .50  of  a  pound. 

In  Table  XIII  are  shown  the  weekly  gains  made  by 
twelve  litters  of  eighty-six  pigs  up  to  seventy  days  of  age, 
at  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station.  These  pigs  were 
farrowed  by  Berkshire,  Poland  China,  Razorback,  and 
cross-bred  sows.  Both  sows  and  pigs  were  liberally  fed 
on  good  growing  and  milk-producing  rations  during  the 
suckling  period. 

These  figures  are  conservative  and  show  the  remark- 
able capacity  of  the  new-born  pigs  for  growth.  During 
each  of  the  ten  weeks  of  the  nursing  period,  the  pigs 
gained  an  amount  considerably  in  excess  of  their  original 
birth  weight.  The  original  weight  was  almost  doubled 
in  the  first  week.  From  a  total  weight  of  227  pounds 
at  birth,  these  eighty-six  pigs,  during  the  suckling  period, 
gained  a  total  of  2805  pounds,  more  than  twelve  times 
their  original  weight.  (See  Chapter  V,  page  107.) 

The  total  gains  made  in  seventy  days,  as  shown  in  the 
column  at  the  right,  show  the  variation  common  among 
the  different  litters  in  every  herd.  A  study  of  these 
figures  reveals  the  interesting  fact  that  the  pigs  in  the 
small  litters  did  not  gain  faster  than  the  individual  pigs 


Care  and  Feeding  of  Sow  and  Litter 


87 


rl«*N»t-3 


(NOOOCOiMOiOQOCOOQO 


s 


(NOOOCO'OiOOO'O'Hr-lOOiO 


COC<J  i—  li—  trHCO 


i-H-*XO5O(N'-iCOCOO<NCO 
COCO         T-i<N<MCO<N>-i'-iT-H,-i 


Elsld 

s^fe^ 


III! 

£    S^ 


11,» 


l-g 


88  Pork  Production 

in  the  larger  litters.  The  average  gains  made  by  the 
individual  pigs  in  the  litters  of  different  sizes  were  as 
follows:  In  the  litters  of  ten,  the  pigs  made  an  average 
gain  during  the  seventy  days  of  35.4  pounds;  in  the 
litter  of  nine,  the  pigs  gained  an  average  of  39.1  pounds; 
in  the  litters  of  eight  the  average  gain  was  30  pounds ; 
in  the  litter  of  seven  it  was  35.5  pounds;  and  in  the 
litters  of  five  pigs  it  was  39.9  pounds  a  pig.  These 
figures  bear  out  the  theory  held  by  many  practical  hog- 
men  that  the  individual  pigs  in  large,  but  normal-sized, 
litters  usually  grow  as  fast  as  do  the  individual  pigs  pro- 
duced in  small  litters. 

Another  interesting  observation  on  this  table  is  that 
the  gaining  capacity  of  the  pigs  increases  quite  regularly 
from  week  to  week  during  this  time,  although  the  gain 
for  each  unit  of  body  weight  is  much  greater  in  the  first 
weeks  than  the  last. 

Castration. 

Castrating  the  pigs  should  not  be  postponed  long  after 
the  pigs  are  weaned.  In  fact,  if  performed  before  weaning, 
when  the  pigs  are  about  six  weeks  old,  it  will  require  less 
work  and  the  shock  to  the  system  will  be  less  noticeable. 
From  the  standpoint  of  the  pig,  the  earlier  he  is  castrated 
the  better. 

Although  this  is  not  a  dangerous  nor  a  complicated 
operation,  the  observation  of  a  few  practical  precautions 
will  reduce  the  risk  of  possible  complications.  The  pigs 
should  have  their  morning  feed  withheld;  one  should 
avoid,  so  far  as  possible,  getting  the  pigs  warmed  up  and 
excited ;  a  dry  clean  place,  close  to  where  the  pigs  are  to 
be  inclosed  should  be  provided  for  the  work;  the  knife 
should  be  sharpened  thoroughly,  and  a  whetstone  put 


Care  and  Feeding  of  Sow  and  Litter  89 

into  the  pocket  if  the  number  of  pigs  to  be  operated  on  is 
large;  a  pan  or  half-bucket  of  strong  disinfectant,  as  a 
4  per  cent  solution  of  coal-tar  dip,  should  be  at  hand 
in  which  the  knife  is  placed  between  operations.  In 
performing  the  operation,  it  is  important  that  the  incision 
be  made  low  enough  to  provide  ready  drainage  and  to 
prevent  the  accumulation  of  pus  at  the  base  of  the  pouch, 
the  cord  should  be  broken  off  well  back,  or  drawn  out 
and  scraped.  Before  releasing  the  pig,  the  wounds  should 
be  washed  with  the  disinfectant;  if  in  fly-time  some 
pine-tar  should  be  applied.  After  the  operation,  the 
pigs  should  be  shut  away  from  old  wallows  and  much- 
used  mud-holes,  so  as  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  filth 
germs  into  the  wounds.  The  best  place  for  the  pigs  is  a 
clean  pasture.  For  several  days  they  should  be  examined 
occasionally  and  any  swollen  or  infected  ones  properly 
looked  after. 


CULLING    OUT    THE    UNPRODUCTIVE    SOWS 

The  best  time  of  year  to  make  an  accounting  with  the 
sows  is  after  they  have  weaned  their  pigs.  They  have 
individually  just  finished  a  test  of  performance  which 
offers  the  best  and  most  practical  basis  for  the  selection 
of  future  breeding  stock.  Only  those  sows  which  have 
produced  good-sized,  even  litters  of  pigs  and  suckled 
them  well  should  be  retained  for  another  breeding  sea- 
son. The  prolific  heavy-milking  sow,  though  "thin  as 
a  rail"  when  her  pigs  are  taken  from  her,  is  the  foun- 
dation of  every  successful  herd  of  hogs.  Such  a  sow 
should  hold  her  place  in  the  breeding  herd  so  long  as 
there  are  no  better  ones,  according  to  the  same  standard, 
to  take  her  place.  Mature  sows  which  fail  to  raise  litters 


90  Pork  Production 

of  six  good  pigs  should  ordinarily  be  put  into  the  fat- 
tening-pen.  Although  they  may  be  smooth  and  good 
to  look  at,  the  herd  from  a  pork-producing  standpoint 
should  be  rid  of  them.  Sows  with  defective  teats,  the 
cross  sows  with  mean  dispositions,  the  gilts  which  did 
not  perform  up  to  expectations,  the  pig-killers  and  poor 
milkers  should  go  into  the  fattening-pen.  No  market- 
producing  herd  can  be  brought  up  and  maintained  at 
a  high  level  of  breeding  performance  without  constant 
culling,  and  no  herd  of  pedigreed  stock  can  be  made  to 
succeed  where  "looks"  and  not  performance  is  made  the 
test  in  selection. 

HERD  RECORDS 

In  the  management  of  a  pedigreed  herd,  a  systematic 
and  detailed  set  of  permanent  records  is  imperative. 
The  reliability  of  every  printed  pedigree  rests  not  only 
on  the  integrity  of  the  breeder,  but  also  on  the  faithful- 
ness and  care  with  which  the  records  have  been  kept. 
It  is  desirable,  therefore,  that  the  system  of  record-keep- 
ing adopted  possess  the  following  features:  it  should 
provide  for  the  statement  of  all  essential  facts,  i.e.,  it 
should  be  complete ;  it  should  be  logically  and  systematic- 
ally arranged;  it  should  be  as  simple  as  possible  and 
adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  individual  breeder;  and  it 
should  be  of  a  kind  which  will  insure  permanency. 

The  records  may  be  kept  either  in  specially  made 
book  form  or  on  suitably  ruled  cards  which  may  be  in- 
dexed. Each  form  has  its  advantages.  The  publishers 
of  practically  all  breed  papers  now  put  out  private  herd 
record  books  which  are  furnished  to  the  breeders  at  a 
nominal  cost.  These  have  done  much  to  encourage  the 
systematic  keeping  of  records  and  to  give  confidence  in 


Care  and  Feeding  of  Sow  and  Litter  91 

the  results  of  pedigree  registrations  generally.  These 
books  are  inexpensive,  convenient  to  use,  and  are  en- 
tirely satisfactory.  They  are  especially  recommended  for 
breeders  who  are  poor  bookkeepers.  Two  sample  pages 
from  one  of  the  best  of  these  private  herd  registers  are 
given  on  pages  92  and  93 .1 

In  addition  to  the  sow  and  litter  divisions,  a  complete 
record  system  should  also  provide  spaces  for:  (a)  an 
extended  pedigree  of  each  boar  and  a  list  of  the  sows  to 
which  he  has  been  bred  during  the  year ;  (6)  a  summa- 
rized record  of  the  individual  animals  bought  and  sold ; 
and  (c)  an  index.  If  such  a  system  is  supplemented  by 
giving  each  sow  in  the  herd  which  has  produced  two  or 
more  litters  a  page  or  card  upon  which  may  be  recorded 
a  summarized  statement  of  the  litters  she  has  produced, 
the  number  of  pigs  farrowed  and  raised  in  each,  the  num- 
ber retained,  and  the  number  sold  and  total  value,  it  will 
facilitate  the  study  of  the  performance  records  and  insure 
a  more  accurate  estimate  of  the  value  of  each  sow  in  the 
herd. 

THE  COST  OF   FEEDING  THE  SOW  AND   LITTER  FROM 
FARROWING  TO   WEANING  TIME 

The  feed  cost  of  growing  the  litter  of  pigs  to  weaning 
time  represents  a  necessary  and  important  part  of  the 
cost  of  producing  finished  pork.  This  cost  will  vary 
widely,  of  course,  with  general  conditions,  herds,  and 
feeders.  The  effort  is  here  made  to  estimate  the  approxi- 
mate cost  for  the  average  of  good  conditions.  The 
calculations  are  based  on  the  average  feed  consumption 
of  twenty  sows  and  litters,  sixteen  at  the  Wisconsin 

1  The  W.  B.  C.  Herd  Register,  Moore  Bros.  Co.,  Rochester 
Ind. 


92 


Pork  Production 


i 

1 

t.           £ 

5        a 

.13            « 

1 

a 
J 

CO 

1 

h 

*            S 

| 

1 

| 

0> 
2 

a 

S? 

CC 

55 

§ 

< 

5 

D 

3 

.§ 

1 

0 

a 

i 

•s 

1 

< 

3 

i 

1 

Q 

CC 
0 
0 

1 

PH 

1 

1 

| 

1 

1 

01 

01 

LJ 

l- 

h 

-i 

1 

1 

CD   CD 

1 

d 

1 

gl 

u 

r* 

d 
55 

1 

1 

1 

5 

d 

^0 

< 

Z 

Q 

2 

LJ 

o 

-2 

I 

. 

£ 

1- 

d 

•g 

U. 

0 

1 

1 

Ul 

3 

P5 

Ul 

en 

6 

0 

~tH 

0 

|M 

13 

1 

Ul 

Q. 

1 
II 

o> 

1 

c 
d 

Number 

| 

0 

1 

"o 
5 

c3 

Q 

.S 

m   Ui 

! 

-S 
Q 

+ 

Marks  of  Pig: 
blowing  Litte 

cc 

r 

^ 

P 
^^ 

3 

i| 

1 

"S 

S 

si 

1 

l2 

1 

5 

.aj 

"cS 

^3 

j 

G 

I 

"S 

i 

£ 

P 

P 

1 

13 

S 

o 

1 

0 

2^ 

S^ 

Q 

Care  and  Feeding  of  Sow  and  Litter 


93 


LJ      < 

h    Q 

h    a 

=  2 

cc 

(0 

cc 
u 

I- 


1 

I 

& 

M 

6 

• 

Q 

1 

1 

P 

f 

0) 

PH 

CO 

s, 

"ft 

O 

.2- 

a 

Q. 

M 

^ 

o 
u 

on 

U. 

0 

1 

B 
H 

QQ 
CO 

h 

§ 

z 
0 

h 

g 

O 

0 

Q 

co 
0 

Q. 

1 

Q 

CO 

o 

S 

w 

6 

a 
S 

_ 

fe 

_C 

i 

1 

1 

! 

« 

2 

i 

2 

I 

S 

c 

1 

c 

i 

6 

53 

55 

94 


Pork  Production 


Station,1  four  at  the  North  Carolina  Station,2  and  four 
at  Purdue  University.3  The  feeds  in  these  tests  are  for 
convenience  reduced  to  a  common  basis  by  the  use  of  the 
Scandinavian  Feed  Unit  System.  The  summarized  rec- 
ords for  these  twenty  sows  and  litters  are  shown  in 
Table  XIV. 


TABLE  XIV.  —  RECORD  OF  AVERAGE  FEED  CONSUMPTION  OP 
TWENTY  Sows  AND  LITTERS  FROM  FARROWING  TO  WEANING 
TIME 


AVERAGE 
NUMBER 
DAYS  FED 

AVERAGE 
NUMBER 
PIGS 
RAISED 
PER  LITTER 

AVERAGE 
WEIGHT 
LITTERS 
AT  WEAN- 
ING TIME 

AVERAGE 
WEIGHT 
Sows 
WHEN 
WEANING 
PIGS* 

AVERAGE  Loss 
WEIGHT  EACH 

SOW   IN 

SUCKLING 
PERIOD 

AVERAGE 
NUMBER 
FEED  UNITS 
DAILY  PER 

SOW  AND 

LITTER 

76.6 

74.5 

Ib. 

270 

Ib. 

318 

Ib. 

23.75 

11.32 

Charging  corn  at  56  cents  a  bushel,  or  $1.00  a  hundred, 
shorts  at  $1.50  a  hundred,  tankage  at  $2.50  a  hundred, 
and  skim-milk  at  30  cents  a  hundred,  a  very  satisfactory 
combination  c\f  these  feeds  would  cost  approximately 
lj  cents  for  each  feed  unit  contained.  When  corn  is 
70  cents  a  bushel,  and  protein  supplements  about  on  a 
par  in  price  with  those  just  quoted,  the  cost  of  each  feed 
unit  would  be  a  little  less  than  1|  cents,  and  so  on.  In 
Table  XV  is  given  the  cost  of  feeding  the  sow  and  litter 
on  the  basis  of  1  cent,  Ij  cents,  1|  cents,  If  cents,  2  cents 
and  2|  cents  for  each  feed  unit. 

1  W.  J.  Carlyle  :  Bull.  104. 

2  Dan  T.  Gray :  Circ.  25. 

3  Braxton  and  Jones :  Purdue  Univ.  Thesis,  1915. 

4  Average  weight  of  four  sows  estimated. 


Care  and  Feeding  of  Sow  and  Litter 


95 


TABLE  XV.  —  SHOWING  AVERAGE  COST  OF  FEEDING  Sow  AND 
LITTER  TO  WEANING  TIME 


PRICES  OF  FEEDS 

AVERAGE  NUM- 
BER FEED  UNITS 
FED  DAILY 

AVERAGE  DAILY 
COST  FEED,  Sow 
AND  LITTER 

AVERAGE  COST 
FEEDING  Sow  AND 
LITTER  OF  7-8 
PIGS,  70  DAYS 

1   cent   per  feed 

unit   .... 

11.32 

11.32  cents 

$7.92 

11  cents  per  feed 

unit   .... 

11.32 

14.15      " 

9.90 

\\  cents  per  feed 

unit   .... 

11.32 

16.98      " 

11.89 

If  cents  per  feed 

unit   .... 

11.32 

19.81      " 

13.87 

2  cents  per  feed 

unit   .... 

11.32 

22.64      " 

15.85 

2|  cents  per  feed 

unit   .... 

11.32 

28.30      " 

19.81 

With  a  careful  selection  of  the  feeds,  it  is  believed  that 
a  good  feeder  should  be  able  to  feed  the  sow  and  litter 
for  considerably  less  than  here  indicated.  Especially 
should  this  be  true  when  a  part  of  the  concentrated  feeds 
are  supplemented  by  good  forage  crops.  Legume  forage 
crops  should  cut  down  the  cost  approximately  5  per  cent. 
No  charge  is  here  made  for  the  normal  loss  of  weight  of  the 
sows  during  this  period,  because  no  credit  was  taken  for 
the  gains  made  during  the  breeding  and  gestation  periods. 
She  should  weigh  about  the  same  at  this  time  as  at  the 
beginning  of  the  breeding  season,  so  that  the  feed  account 
is  balanced. 

The  cost  of  feeding  the  gilt  with  her  first  litter  during  the 
nursing  period  is  less  than  that  for  the  mature  sow.  Consid- 
ering the  smaller  size  and  the  fewer  pigs  to  the  litter  in  case 
of  the  gilt,  a  feed  charge  of  10  per  cent  less  than  the  figures 
given  for  the  mature  sow  should  be  approximately  correct. 


CHAPTER  V 

SIZE  OF  LITTERS;  BIRTH  WEIGHT  OF  PIGS; 
MILK-FLOW  OF  SOWS 

IN  the  following  pages  some  figures  are  given  showing 
the  influence  of  certain  factors  on  the  size  of  litters,  birth 
weight  of  pigs,  and  the  milk-flow  of  sows.  Since  the 
usefulness  and  value  of  a  sow  are  largely  determined  by 
her  performance  in  these  particulars,  it  is  thought  the 
statistics  will  be  of  interest  and  value. 

SIZE   OF  LITTERS 

The  ability  of  the  sow  regularly  to  produce  large  litters 
is  the  most  fundamental  and  valuable  of  those  traits 
which  determine  her  usefulness  in  the  breeding  herd.  In 
view  of  this,  it  is  of  considerable  importance  to  learn  what 
factors  are  responsible  for  its  wide  variation  and  the 
extent  to  which  these  factors  are  under  the  control  of  the 
breeder  or  feeder.  The  following  have  each  been  re- 
garded by  hog-men  as  important :  age,  feeding  and  condi- 
tion at  breeding  time,  cross-breeding,  the  boar  to  which 
the  sow  is  mated,  type,  breed,  and  individuality. 

Age  of  sow. 

It  is  a  matter  of  observation  that  the  number  of  pigs 
produced  by  a  sow  varies  from  year  to  year  throughout 
her  breeding  life.  Her  age  is  usually  considered  the  most 

96 


Size  of  Litters 


97 


important  factor  causing  this  variation.  In  Table  XVI 
are  presented  the  findings  made  by  Rommel  from  a  study 
of  the  farrowing  records  of  6145  sows  recorded  in  volume 
36  of  the  American  Poland  China  Record. 

TABLE  XVI.  —  SIZE  OF  LITTERS  OP  Sows  OP  DIFFERENT  AGES 


AQE  OP  Sows 

NUMBER  OP  LITTERS 

AVERAGE  NUMBER  OP 
PIGS  PER  LITTER 

1  year             .... 

2010 

6.64 

2047 

7.56 

3 

1157 

7.88 

4                                 .     . 

606 

8.26 

5      "     

325 

8.40 

These  results  show  that  the  two-year  old  sows,  recorded 
in  volume  36,  produced  larger  litters  than  did  the  year- 
lings, and  the  three-year  old  sows  larger  litters  than  the 
two-year  olds.  There  was  a  regular  increase  in  the  size 
of  litters  as  the  age  of  the  sows  increased.  It  is  believed 
that  these  averages  are  based  on  a  sufficient  number  of 
litters  to  make  them  reliable  and  fairly  indicative  of  the 
fertility  of  sows  of  different  ages.  These  results  should 
not,  however,  be  interpreted  to  mean  that  the  average 
sow  necessarily  produces  an  increasing  number  of  pigs 
to  the  litter  up  to  and  including  her  fifth  year.  Ordinary 
herd  selection  would  mean  the  elimination  of  the  low  pro- 
ducers at  an  early  age  and  the  retention  of  the  more  pro- 
lific. The  older  sows  in  the  average  herd  are,  therefore, 
selected  individuals,  while  the  younger  ones  contain  many 
whose  performance  records  will  not  entitle  them  later  to 
permanent  places  in  the  breeding  herd. 

With  the  purpose  of  securing  information  on  how  age 


98 


Pork  Production 


affects  the  fertility  of  the  individual  sow,  the  breeding 
records  of  ten  colleges  and  experiment  station  herds  were 
studied.1  These  records  are  of  1152  litters  and  10,555 
pigs.  The  tabulated  data  are  shown  in  Table  XVII. 


TABLE  XVII.  —  NUMBER   OF  PIGS  AT   BIRTH   IN   SUCCESSIVE 
LITTERS  OF  INDIVIDUAL  Sows 


NUMBER 
OF  Sows 

NUMBER  op  LITTER 

AVERAGE  NUMBER 
PIGS  PER  LITTER 

AVERAGE  INCREASE 
IN  PIGS  PER  LITTER 

244 

First      litter 

7.778 

244 

Second 

8.922 

+  1.144 

243 

Ci 

8.991 

243 

Third 

9.275 

+0.284 

176 

" 

9.630 

176 

Fourth 

9.857 

+0.227 

113 

(i 

10.460 

113 

Fifth 

10.221 

-0.239 

71 

a 

10.478 

71 

Sixth 

10.521 

+0.043 

31 

n 

10.870 

31 

Seventh 

9.709 

-1.161 

18 

« 

9.388 

18 

Eighth 

10.111 

+0.723 

7 

K 

11.000 

7 

Ninth 

9.428 

-  1.572 

5 

" 

9.200 

5 

Tenth 

8.000 

-1.200 

As  shown  in  the  above  table,  244  sows  produced  in 
their  first  litters  an  average  of  7.778  pigs.  These  same 
244  sows  in  their  second  litters  produced  an  average  of 
8.922  pigs,  or  1  444  in  excess  of  their  first  litters.  Of 
these  244  sows,  243  produced  their  third  litters,  the 


1  South    Dakota,    Wisconsin,    Michigan,    Illinois,    Cornell, 
Missouri,  Nebraska,  Kansas,  Ohio,  Purdue. 


Size  of  Litters 


99 


average  size  of  which  was  0.284  pig  larger  than  their 
second  litters.  Of  these  243  sows,  176  produced  their 
fourth  litters,  the  average  for  which  was  0.227  pig  larger 
than  their  third  litters.  In  the  same  way,  it  is  deter- 
mined that  the  fifth  litters  were  0.239  pig  smaller  than  the 
fourth,  while  the  sixth  slightly  exceeded  the  fifth  litters. 
The  seventh  litters  were  very  much  smaller  than  the  sixth, 


FIG.  8.  —  Showing  variations  in  the  number  of  pigs  in  successive  litters. 

while  of  the  18  sows  producing  eight  litters,  the  eight 
slightly  exceeded  the  seventh.  Only  7  of  these  sows 
produced  their  ninth  litters,  and  only  5  their  tenth,  but 
with  these  litters,  there  was  a  decided  decrease  in  their  size. 

These  results,  expressed  graphically  in  Fig.  8,  will  show 
more  clearly  the  fluctuations  which  may  be  expected  in 
the  size  of  the  successive  litters  of  any  individual  sow. 

According  to  this  curve,  a  sow  may  be  expected  to 
produce  an  increasing  number  of  pigs  up  to  and  includ- 


100  Pork  Production 

ing  her  fourth  litter.  From  the  fourth  litter  on,  she  may 
be  expected  to  produce  a  decreasing  number  with  each 
succeeding  litter.  The  number  of  sows  with  records 
here  of  seven,  eight,  nine,  or  ten  litters  is  too  small,  how- 
ever, to  make  the  averages  for  these  litters  reliable.  The 
extreme  fluctuations  shown  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
curve  would  be  made  to  disappear  if  a  larger  number  of 
records  of  these  litters  was  available.  As  a  result  of  this 
limitation  of  numbers,  the  dotted  line  is  the  more  reliable 
indication  of  the  average  performance. 

No  attempt  was  made  in  this  study  to  allow  for 
a  sow  producing  two  litters  a  year.  It  is  believed, 
however,  that  she  will  as  closely  approximate  the  curve 
shown,  as  she  would  if  producing  but  one.  The  large 
increase  of  the  second  litter  over  the  first  was  probably 
due  to  the  fact  that  few  of  the  young  sows  produced  their 
second  litters  without  a  rest  of  six  months.  The  average 
size  of  all  the  litters  here  reported  was  slightly  over  nine 
pigs,  which  is  probably  above  the  record  of  the  average 
herd.  This,  however,  would  not  tend  in  any  way  to 
change  the  general  direction  of  the  above  curve. 

Feeding  and  condition  of  the  sow. 

That  the  way  a  sow  is  fed  the  week  or  two  before  breed- 
ing exerts  an  important  influence  on  the  number  of  eggs 
secreted  when  she  comes  in  heat  and  the  consequent 
size  of  the  resulting  litter  is  strongly  supported  by  the 
observations  of  the  best  hog-men.  It  is  not  so  much 
the  direct  effect  of  the  feeding  alone  which  is  believed  to 
produce  this  result,  as  it  is  the  state  of  health  and  breed- 
ing thrift  brought  about  by  the  proper  combination  of 
judicious  feeding  and  liberal  exercise.  Thin  active  sows, 
when  fed  liberal  rations  before  breeding,  respond  to  the 


Size  of  Litters  101 

stimulating  effects  of  the  gaming  condition  by  the  se- 
cretion of  a  maximum  number  of  eggs.     (See  page  11.) 

That  a  low  degree  of  fertility,  or  even  complete  sterility, 
may  result  from  excessive  fatness  is  also  clearly  estab- 
lished by  experience.  Sows  which  have  been  highly 
fitted  for  show,  especially  if  maintained  in  this  extreme 
condition  for  a  considerable  length  of  time,  require  skill- 
ful handling  before  regular  breeding  habits  can  be  estab- 
lished. Excessive  quantities  of  fat  about  the  generative 
organs  would  seem  to  offer  a  mechanical  obstacle  to  the 
normal  nutrition  of  the  egg-secreting  ovaries,  and  to  the 
free  passage  of  the  eggs  after  secretion  down  the  Fallopian 
tubes  to  the  uterus.  When  to  excessive  fatness  is  added 
the  evil  of  close  confinement,  the  breeding  qualities  are 
very  likely  to  suffer  permanent  injury. 

Cross-breeding. 

Some  hog-men  claim  that  cross-bred  litters  are,  on  the 
average,  larger  than  pure-bred  ones.  In  the  table  on  the 
following  page  are  submitted  figures  which,  although 
limited  in  number,  will  throw  some  light  on  this  ques- 
tion. Ten  pure-bred  sows,  nine  Berkshires  and  one 
Poland  China,  produced  a  total  of  36  litters,  11  of  which 
were  cross-bred  and  25  pure-bred.  Each  sow  produced 
both  cross-bred  and  pure-bred  litters. 

Considering  that  only  one  of  the  11  cross-bred  litters 
was  produced  by  a  gilt,  or  sow  with  her  first  litter,  while 
8  of  the  25  pure-bred  litters  were  so  produced,  the  results 
do  not  show  any  advantage  in  size  for  the  cross-bred 
over  the  pure-bred  litters.  Stated  in  another  way, 
73  per  cent  of  the  cross-bred  litters  were  produced  by 
mature  sows,  .while  only  36  per  cent  of  the  pure-bred 
litters  were  produced  by  mature  sows.  Making  allow- 


102 


Pork  Production 


ance  for  the  factor  of  age,  therefore,  it  would  seem  that 
the  difference  of  less  than  one  pig  is  too  small  to  justify 
the  conclusion  that  cross-bred  litters  are  larger  than 
pure-bred  ones. 

TABLE  XVIII.  —  EFFECT  OF  CROSS-BREEDING  ON  SIZE  OP 
LITTERS 


CROSS-BRED  LITTERS 

PURE-BRED  LITTERS 

Sows 

Total 

Total 

Number  of  Litters 

Number 

Number  of  Litters 

Number 

Pigs 

Pigs 

#1 

1  (2d  litter) 

12 

1  (1st  litter) 

7 

#2 

1  (1st     "   ) 

8 

1  (2d       "   ) 

10 

#3 

1  (2d       '   ) 

4 

3  (1st,  3d,  and  4th 

litters) 

14 

#4 

1  (3d      "   ) 

6 

2  (1st   and   2d   lit- 

ters) 

20 

#5 

1  (7th    "   ) 

11 

6  (1st,  2d,  3d,  4th, 

5th  and  6th  lit- 

ters) 

62 

#6 

2  (3d  and  4th  lit- 

2 (1st  and  2d  lit- 

ters) 

20 

ters) 

18 

#7 

1  (3d  litter) 

12 

2  (1st  and  2d  lit- 

ters) 

11 

#8 

1  (5th    "   ) 

9 

3  (2d,  3d  and  4th 

litters) 

20 

#9 

1  (4th    "   ) 

9 

3  (1st,  2d  and  3d 

litters) 

23 

#10 

1  (3rd    "   ) 

5 

2  (1st  and  2d  lit- 

ters) 

13 

Aver- 

ages 

11  Cross-bred  litters 

8.72 

25  Pure-bred  litters 

7.92 

Influence  of  the  boar. 

That  the  boar  to  which  the  sow  is  mated  exerts  an 
influence  on  the  size  of  the  resulting  litter  is  believed  by 


Size  of  Litters  103 

most  hog-men,  and  experience  supplies  many  instances 
which  seem  to  prove  this  claim.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  known  facts  relating  to  the  reproductive  process  do 
not  seem  to  supply  any  ground  on  which  to  base  this 
belief;  in  fact,  they  indicate  that  such  influence  under 
normal  conditions  is  an  impossibility.  It  is  known, 
for  example,  that  there  cannot  be  a  larger  number  of 
pigs  in  the  litter  than  there  are  eggs  produced  by  the 
sow  at  breeding  time ;  also,  that  in  normal  breeding  serv- 
ice the  boar  supplies  a  thousand  sperms  and  more  for 
each  egg  produced  by  the  sow.  Under  conditions,  there- 
fore, in  which  the  sow  and  boar  are  both  vigorous,  there 
would  seem  to  be  no  chance  or  possibility  for  the  num- 
ber of  pigs  farrowed  to  be  in  any  way  affected  by  the 
boar. 

But  the  sow  and  boar  are  not  always  vigorous,  and 
the  facts  also  support  the  view  that  when  this  is 
the  case  the  union  of  the  sperms  with  the  eggs  may 
be  so  weak  that  not  all  of  them  develop  completely  in 
embryo;  the  result  is  a  smaller  litter.  A  boar  that  is 
over-used  during  the  breeding  season,  or  is  run  down 
and  out  of  condition,  or  that  is  lacking  in  normal  fer- 
tility or  vigor,  may  produce  a  considerable  number  of 
sperms  which,  although  strong  enough  to  fertilize  the 
eggs,  lack  the  life  to  insure  the  full  embryonic  develop- 
ment of  the  pigs  from  these  unions.  There  is  good  reason 
for  believing,  therefore,  that  in  such  instances  the  size 
of  the  litter  may  be  influenced  below  the  normal  by  the 
boar  with  which  the  sow  was  mated.  It  should  be 
understood  that  in  no  case,  however,  can  the  boar  cause 
the  number  of  pigs  to  be  increased  beyond  that  num- 
ber of  eggs  produced  at  the  time  the  sow  was  mated. 
(See  p.  17.) 


104  Pork  Production 

Type,  breed,  individuality. 

Although  breeds  of  the  bacon  type  are,  as  a  rule,  more 
prolific  than  those  of  the  lard  type,  the  question  of  breed 
advantage  within  the  respective  types  will  probably  never 
be  determined  satisfactorily  for  the  reason  that  the  va- 
rious breeds  are  in  a  state  of  constant  change,  some  on 
the  whole  improving  and  others  possibly  deteriorating. 
A  statement  claiming  superiority  for  one  breed  over 
another  of  the  same  type  might  be  a  fact  at  this  time,  but 
when  applied  to  the  same  breeds,  ten  years  hence,  might 
be  far  from  the  truth.  Furthermore,  the  task  of  deter- 
mining from  the  herd-book  records  the  pig-producing 
abilities  of  two  breeds  for  a  given  time  would  be  an  ex- 
ceedingly tedious  and  laborious  undertaking.  The  fact 
that  the  number  of  pigs  in  the  litter  is  not  yet  made  a 
matter  of  permanent  record  by  all  the  breed  associations 
renders  such  a  study  impossible  for  several  of  our  promi- 
nent breeds.  Until  such  records  are  reported  and  a 
comprehensive  study  is  made  of  them,  the  seeker  after 
breed  information  relating  to  this  important  point  will 
be  limited  in  his  search  to  the  observations  of  himself 
and  others,  and  the  more  or  less  prejudiced  claims  of  the 
different  breed  advocates. 

Of  the  several  factors  which  affect  the  breeding  quali- 
ties of  a  sow,  individuality  is  one  of  the  most  important. 
This  is  determined  largely  by  the  combination  of  heredi- 
tary qualities  represented  in  her  breeding  and  make-up, 
and  which  gives  distinction  to  each  of  the  individuals  of 
a  herd.  If  one  breed  is  superior  to  another,  it  is  because 
this  breed  possesses  in  the  aggregate  a  larger  number  of 
prolific  individuals.  The  prolificacy  of  any  herd  or  strain 
of  hogs,  in  the  same  way,  is  not  a  question  of  breed  but 


Size  of  Litters 


105 


of  individuals.  Every  breed  possesses  a  sufficient  number 
of  prolific  individuals  to  reward  the  breeder  who  will 
correctly  value  and  then  persistently  select  for  this 
quality.  If  to  careful  selection,  the  breeder  will  add 
intelligent  feeding  and  care,  the  breeding  performance 
of  any  herd  can  be  developed  and  maintained  at  a  high 
standard. 

The  number  of  pigs  raised. 

The  number  of  pigs  farrowed  is  not  as  important  as 
the  number  raised.  Although  the  most  prolific  sows  in 
the  herd  raise  more  pigs,  as  a  rule,  than  do  those  which 
produce  smaller  litters,  they  do  not  raise  as  large  a  per- 
centage of  those  farrowed.  This  seems  to  be  especially 
true  when  mature  sows  are  compared  with  gilts. 

In  the  following  table  are  summarized  the  records 
made  by  mature  sows  and  gilts  at  the  North  Platte, 
Nebraska,  Experiment  Station.1  The  test  included  87 
litters  produced  by  gilts  and  72  litters  by  mature 
sows,  in  1910,  1911,  1912,  and  1913.  The  large  num- 
ber of  individuals  studied  makes  the  results  particularly 
valuable. 


TABLE  XIX.  —  PERCENTAGE  OF  PIGS  RAISED  BY  MATURE  Sows 
AND  GILTS 


NUMBER 

OF 

LITTERS 

TOTAL, 

NUMBER 
PIGS 
FARROWED 

NUMBER 
PIGS  FAR- 
ROWED PER 
LITTER 

NUMBER 
PIGS 
RAISED  PER 
LITTER 

PERCENTAGE 
OF  FAR- 
ROWED PIGS 
RAISED 

Mature  sows 

72 

791 

10.9 

6.56 

60 

Gilts     .     .     . 

87 

714 

8.2 

6.25 

76 

1  W.  P.  Snyder :  Bull.  147. 


106 


Pork  Production 


As  bearing  on  the  same  point,  the  number  of  pigs 
farrowed  dead  or  immature  in  litters  of  different  sizes 
is  also  instructive.  The  author  is  indebted  to  W.  J. 
Carmichael 1  of  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station  for  these 
data  which  are  presented  in  Table  XX. 


TABLE   XX.  —  EFFECT   OF   SIZE   OF   LITTER   ON  NUMBER    OF 
DEAD  OR  IMMATURE  PIGS 


NUMBER  PIGS 
PER  LITTER 

TOTAL  NUMBER 
op  LITTERS 

TOTAL  NUMBER 
DEAD  OR 
IMMATURE  PIGS 

DEAD  OR 

IMMATURE  PIGS 
PER  LITTER 

PERCENTAGE 
OP  DEAD  OR 
IMMATURE  PIGS 

4 

39 

14 

.36 

8.97 

5 

57 

23 

.40 

8.07 

6 

66 

25 

.38 

6.31 

7 

84 

60 

.71 

10.71 

8 

86 

37 

.43 

5.37 

9 

72 

63 

.87 

9.72 

10 

78 

56 

.72 

7.17 

11 

53 

69 

1.30 

11.83 

12 

33 

42 

1.27 

10.61 

13 

25 

39 

1.56 

11.89 

14 

11 

37 

3.36 

24.02 

15 

5 

3 

.60 

4.00 

16 

3 

5 

1.66 

10.41 

Although  a  larger  number  of  dead  or  immature  pigs 
is  farrowed  in  litters  containing  ten  or  more  pigs  than  less, 
it  would  appear  that  in  litters  smaller  than  ten  the  number 
of  pigs  farrowed  dead  or  immature  is  not  greatly  affected. 
When  the  proportion  of  dead  or  immature  pigs  is  con- 
sidered, the  table  does  not  show  any  greater  loss  in  the 
larger  litters,  up  to  ten,  than  in  the  smaller  ones.  When 
the  number  of  pigs  to  the  litter  exceeds  ten,  however, 


1  Master  thesis,  Univ.  of  111.,  1916. 


Size  of  Litters  107 

there  is  a  regular  tendency,  both  absolutely  and  relatively, 
for  the  number  farrowed  dead  or  immature  to  increase 
with  the  increased  size  of  the  litter. 


BIRTH  WEIGHT   OF   PIGS 

Generally  speaking,  the  heaviest  pigs  in  the  litter  are 
the  strongest  and  the  smallest  ones  the  weakest.  The 
pig  that  is  well  grown  and  developed  at  birth  has  an 
advantage  over  his  smaller  litter-mate  which  renders 
him  a  better  prospect  for  economical  pork  production. 
The  average  weight  of  pigs  at  birth  is  approximately 
2^  pounds,  but  they  may  range  all  the  way  from  less  than 
|  pound  to  almost  5.  A  number  of  influences  are  sup- 
posed to  be  responsible  for  this  wide  variation.  Some 
of  these  influences  or  factors  are :  sex,  the  age  of  the 
mother,  cross-breeding,  the  size  of  the  litter,  vigor  of 
the  sow  and  boar  at  breeding  time,  and  nutrition  during 
foetal  development. 

Sex. 

It  is  generally  believed  that  boar  pigs  are  heavier  than 
sow  pigs.  It  is  an  accepted  fact  that  the  males  of  colts, 
lambs,  and  calves  are  heavier  than  the  females.  In 
Table  XXI  are  some  figures  interesting  in  this  connec- 
tion. In  5287  pigs  farrowed  in  the  college  herds  of 
Illinois1  and  Purdue,  there  were  2376  boars  and  2217 
sows.  The  average  birth  weight  of  the  boars  is  shown 
in  Table  XXI  to  be  2.58  pounds,  and  of  the  sows  2.50 
pounds,  a  difference  in  favor  of  the  boars  of  only  ^ 
of  a  pound. 

1  W.  J.  Carmichael,  Master  thesis :  Univ.  of  111.,  1916. 


108  Pork  Production 

TABLE  XXI.  —  EFFECT  OF  SEX  ON  BIKTH  WEIGHT  OF  PIGS 


SEX 

NUMBER  OP  PIGS 
BORN 

TOTAL  BIRTH 
WEIGHT  op  PIGS 

AVERAGE  BIRTH 
WEIGHT  OP  Pioa 

Boars    .     . 

Sows      .     . 

2.720 
2.567 

Ib. 

7.023 
6.431 

Ib. 
2.58 

2.50 

Both  sexes 

5.287 

13.454 

2.54 

All  available  American  statistics  on  the  proportion  of 
the  sexes  in  pigs  would  indicate  a  slight  preponderance 
of  males.  In  Circular  112,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry, 
Rommel  reports  the  results  of  an  extensive  inquiry  on  this 
point.  From  eighty-two  breeders  in  twenty-four  states 
he  obtained  a  record  of  the  proportion  of  males  to  females 
in  1477  litters  containing  13,285  pigs,  which  was,  ap- 
proximately, 201  boars  to  200  sows,  or  6660  boars  and 
6625  sows.  Carmichael  reports  in  thesis  studies  the  pro- 
portion of  2560  boars  and  2420  sows.  Combining  both 
sets  of  data  we  have : 

Boars  9220 

Sows  9045 

Ratio  100  boars  to  98  sows 

Age  of  sow. 

The  pigs  produced  by  young  sows  or  gilts  in  their 
first  litters  are  supposed  to  be  smaller  than  those  borne 
by  mature  sows  in  their  prime,  when  under  the  same 
conditions  as  to  feeding  and  care.  In  the  following  table 
some  figures  with  reference  to  this  point  are  shown.  The 
record  is  here  given  of  the  birth  weight  of  pigs  farrowed 
by  young  sows  twelve  to  eighteen  months  of  age,  and  the 


Size  of  Litters 


109 


birth  weight  of  all  pigs  farrowed  by  mature  sows.  The 
figures  in  the  first  part  of  the  table  are  from  the  records 
of  the  Purdue  University  herd,  while  those  in  the  last 
are  from  records  kept  at  the  North  Platte,  Nebraska, 
substation.1 

TABLE  XXII.  —  EFFECT  OF  MATURITY  OF  Sow  ON  BIRTH 
WEIGHT  OF  PIGS 


LITTERS 

NUMBER  OF 
LITTERS 

TOTAL  BIRTH 
WEIGHT  ALL 
LITTERS 

AVERAGE 
BIRTH  WEIGHT 
EACH  LITTER 

AVERAGE 
BIRTH  WEIGHT 
EACH  PIQ 

Young  sows, 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

1st  litters 

15 

256.25 

17.08 

2.67 

Mature  sows 

13 

354.25 

24.25 

2.61 

Gilts,  1st  lit- 

ters     .     . 

87 

1649.34 

18.95 

2.31 

Mature  sows 

72 

1898.40 

26.36 

2.40 

AVERAGE  OF  ALL 


Young  sows, 

1st  litters 

102 

1905.59 

18.68 

2.36 

Mature  sows 

85 

2252.25 

26.49 

2.43 

The  effect  of  the  age  of  the  sow  on  the  birth  weight  of 
the  individual  pigs  farrowed  is  shown  in  another  way  in 
Table  XXIII.  The  data  are  the  result  of  studies  by 
W.  J.  Carmichael.2 

It  would  appear  from  both  tables  that  there  is  a 
tendency  for  the  mature  sows  to  produce  slightly  heavier 
pigs  individually  than  the  gilts.  The  difference,  how- 
ever, is  very  small  and  does  not  mean  that  the  pigs 
from  gilts  are  materially  handicapped  in  their  start  in  life. 

1  W.  P.  Snyder  :  Bull.  147. 

2  Master  thesis:  Univ.  of  111.,  1916. 


110 


Pork  Production 


TABLE  XXIII.  —  EFFECT  OF  AGE  OF  Sow  ON  BIRTH  WEIGHT 

OF  PIGS 


AGE  OP  Sow;    YEARS 

TOTAL  NUMBER  OF  PIGS 

AVERAGE  BIRTB 
PIGS 

t  WEIGHT, 

1 

922 

2.4411 

3. 

It 

826 

2.48 

2 

899 

2.56 

2£ 

570 

2.54 

3 

455 

2.59 

3| 

299 

2.66 

4 

293 

2.56 

4* 

166 

2.70 

5 

92 

2.87 

Cross-breeding. 

As  shown  in  Table  XXIV,  cross-bred  pigs  appear  to 
have  a  heavier  birth  weight  than  do  pure-breds.  In  this 
table  the  average  birth  weight  of  pure-bred  pigs  is  com- 
pared with  that  for  cross-bred  pigs  produced  by  the 
same  sows.  Although  a  larger  proportion  of  the  cross- 
bred pigs  were  produced  by  mature  sows,  the  difference 
shown  is  suggestive.  The  method  of  feeding  the  sows 
during  pregnancy  was  the  same  throughout  the  years  in 
which  the  records  were  taken.  (See  Chapter  III,  page  42.) 

TABLE  XXIV.  —  EFFECT  OF  CROSSING  ON  BIRTH  WEIGHT 
OF  PIGS 


TOTAL  NUMBER  OF 
LITTERS 

TOTAL  BIRTH 
WEIGHT  OP  LITTERS 

AVERAGE  BIRTH 
WEIGHT  OF  PIGS 

Pure-bred  pigs  . 
Cross-bred  pigs 

27 

13 

Ib. 

66.40 
34.13 

Ib. 

2.45 
2.62 

All  pigs  .  .  . 

40 

100.53 

2.51 

Size  of  Litters 


111 


Size  of  litter. 

In  Table  XXV  are  figures  collected  by  W.  J.  Carmi- 
chael *  on  the  relation  of  the  size  of  the  litter  to  the  birth 
weight  of  the  individual  pigs.  The  large  number  of  pigs 
involved  in  this  study  makes  the  data  here  presented 
especially  valuable. 

TABLE  XXV.  —  EFFECT  OF  SIZE  OF  LITTER  ON  BIRTH  WEIGHT 

OF  PIGS 


NUMBER  OF  PIGS  PER 
LITTER 

TOTAL  NUMBER  OP  PIGS 

AVERAGE  BIRTH  WEIGHT, 
EACH  PIG 

4 

134 

2.78  lb. 

5 

249 

2.78 

6 

353 

2.60 

7 

495 

2.65 

8 

568 

2.60 

9 

579 

2.45 

10 

690 

2.42 

11 

533 

2.45 

12 

365 

2.43 

13 

225 

2.44 

According  to  these  figures,  as  the  number  of  pigs  in 
the  litter  increased,  the  size  of  the  individuals  quite 
regularly  decreased. 

Vigor  of  sow  and  boar  at  breeding  time. 

That  there  is  a  causal  relation  between  the  vigor  of  the 
parents  at  breeding  time  and  the  vigor  and  development 
of  their  offspring  is  attested  by  the  observation  of  stock- 
men and  the  results  of  laboratory  experiments.  Animals 
which  are  in  a  state  of  vigorous  health  at  breeding  time 

1  Master  thesis  :  Univ.  of  111.,  1916. 


112  Pork  Production 

produce  germ-cells  endowed  with  the  maximum  of  vigor 
or  growth  energy ;  while  those  in  a  run-down,  weakened, 
or  unthrifty  condition  produce  germ-cells  which  lack 
the  life  necessary  for  the  conception  of  vigorous  young. 

Sows  bred  immediately  after  weaning  large  litters  of 
pigs,  when  "pulled  down"  and  weakened  in  condition, 
before  they  have  had  the  opportunity  to  recuperate, 
produce  not  only  small  litters  but  also  pigs  which  in- 
dividually are  lacking  in  strength  and  development. 
For  the  same  reason,  sows  in  a  state  of  extreme  fatness 
at  breeding  time,  especially  if  closely  confined,  do  not 
produce,  as  a  rule,  strong  pigs.  Each  pig  is  the  product 
of  two  germ-cells,  one  produced  by  the  sow  and  one  by 
the  boar.  If  the  breeding  condition  of  the  boar  is  at 
low  ebb  at  this  time,  as  the  result  of  insufficient  or 
excessive  feed,  lack  of  exercise,  over-use,  or  disease,  his 
germ-cells,  like  those  of  the  sow,  will  lack  the  life  necessary 
to  insure  vigorous  pigs.  It  is  reasonable  to  conclude 
that  one  of  the  causes  responsible  for  small  weak  pigs 
is  the  practice  of  breeding  the  sows  when  they  and  the 
boar  are  not  in  vigorous  breeding  condition.  These 
observations  emphasize  the  need  of  more  careful  attention 
to  feeding  and  exercise  prior  to  and  during  the  breeding 
season. 

Nutrition. 

Probably  the  fundamental  factor  determining  the 
size  and  development  of  pigs  at  birth  is  the  completeness 
of  their  nourishment  during  embryonic  development. 
Both  the  amount  and  kind  of  feed  are  important  in 
determining  the  supply  of  this  nourishment.  When 
the  ration  is  deficient  in  lime  and  protein,  as  is  not  un- 
common in  the  corn-belt,  the  result  is  a  weak  and  im- 


Size  of  Litters  113 

perfect  development  of  the  pigs.  In  the  same  way, 
a  balanced  ration  may  be  fed  in  such  stingy  portions 
that  the  pigs  are  not  fully  developed. 

The  effect  of  a  diet  of  straight  corn,  in  comparison  with 
a  balanced  ration,  on  the  birth  weight  of  pigs  is  strikingly 
shown  in  experiments  conducted  at  the  Iowa  Experiment 
Station,  the  results  of  which  have  already  been  noted 
in  Chapter  III,  page  42.  Yearling  sows  fed  corn  alone 
during  the  winter  produced  pigs  averaging  1.85  pounds 
at  birth,  while  another  similar  lot  fed  a  ration  of  corn  and 
meat-meal,  containing  sufficient  lime  and  protein,  pro- 
duced pigs  which  weighed,  on  the  average,  2.42  pounds. 
The  average  birth  weight  of  pigs  from  gilts  fed  corn  alone 
at  the  same  station  was  1.74  pounds,  while  pigs  from 
another  lot  of  gilts  in  the  same  experiment  fed  corn  and 
alfalfa  hay  weighed,  on  an  average,,  2.29  pounds.  In- 
adequate foetal  nourishment  is,  no  doubt,  the  funda- 
mental cause  of  the  runt  pig. 

The  pigs  in  abnormally  large  litters  are  ordinarily  not 
so  well  developed  as  are  those  in  normal-sized  litters. 
(See  Table  XXV.)  This,  it  seems  reasonable  to  suppose, 
is  due  to  the  inability  of  the  foetal  membranes  to  accommo- 
date and  properly  nourish  the  extra  number.  As  a  rule, 
sows  which  bring  forth  two  litters  a  year,  also,  do  not 
produce  as  large  pigs  as  they  do  when  farrowing  after  a 
six-months  rest  which  is  probably  the  result  of  deficient 
nourishment. 

MILK   PRODUCTION   OF   SOWS 

The  amount  of  milk  which  a  sow  gives  determines  her 
ability  to  raise  a  large  litter  of  pigs,  and  is,  therefore, 
of  first  importance  in  determining  her  real  value  as  a 
breeder.  In  every  herd  a  few  sows  are  always  better 

i 


114 


Pork  Production 


milkers  than  the  average,  as  evidenced  by  the  weight  and 
thrift  of  their  litters  at  weaning  time.  The  heavy  milking 
sows  are,  also,  the  ones  which  lose  the  most  weight  in 
suckling  their  pigs. 

TABLE  XXVI.  —  MILK  PRODUCTION  OF  BROOD  Sows 


Sows 

AGE 
YEARS 

NUMBER  op  PIGS 
FARROWED 

WEIGHT  OP 
LITTERS  AT 
BIRTH 

AVERAGE 
DAILY  MILK 
PRODUCTION 

Berkshire     .     . 

2 

10 

28  Ib. 

7.30  Ib. 

Berkshire     .     . 

1 

5 

16  " 

4.18   " 

Berkshire     .     . 

4 

10 

22   " 

7.96  " 

f  Berkshire 

|  Razorback     . 

1 

6 

15  " 

5.81   " 

Poland  China 

2 

7 

20   " 

5.38  " 

f  Poland  China 

i  Razorback     . 

2 

6 

12   " 

3.39  " 

\  Poland  China 

\  Razorback 

2 

9 

27   " 

6.65  " 

Poland  China  . 

5 

8 

30   " 

4.00  " 

Razorback  .     . 

2 

8 

17   " 

7.18  " 

Razorback  .     . 

1 

6 

13  " 

5.38  " 

Razorback  .     . 

1 

6 

13  " 

3.65  " 

Razorback  .     . 

3 

5 

14  " 

4.45  " 

Duroc  Jersey    . 

3 

12 

35  " 

7.33  " 

Duroc  Jersey    . 

3 

13 

26   " 

6.02  " 

Duroc  Jersey    . 

3 

13 

28   " 

4.18   " 

Berkshire     .     . 

5 

10 

25   " 

5.70   " 

Average   .     . 

8.37 

21   " 

5.53   " 

Carlyle l  at  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  de- 
termined the  milk  production  of  twelve  sows  by  keeping 
the  litters  and  sows  separate  and  weighing  the  pigs  im- 
mediately before  and  after  nursing.  The  milk-flow  of 
the  individual  sows  represented  in  this  test  is  shown 
in  the  first  part  of  Table  XXVI.  The  records  of  pro- 
1  Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  104. 


Size  of  Litters  115 

duction  of  the  last  four  sows  listed  were  determined  by 
Braxton  and  Jones,1  under  the  direction  of  the  author, 
with  sows  in  the  Purdue  University  herd. 

There  is,  apparently,  as  much  individual  variation  in 
milk-producing  capacity  in  a  herd  of  brood  sows  as  there 
is  among  the  untested  cows  of  an  ordinary  dairy  herd. 
The  variation  shown  above  ranges  all  the  way  from 
a  minimum  of  3.39  pounds  daily  to  a  maximum  of  nearly 
8  pounds.  The  average  daily  production  of  the  sixteen 
sows  tested  was  5.53  pounds,  which,  for  a  ten- weeks 
suckling  period,  would  mean  an  average  production  of 
387  pounds  of  milk  during  the  lactation  period. 

It  is  interesting  to  note,  in  the  preceding  table,  that 
the  sows  which  produced  the  most  milk  farrowed  the 
largest  litters.  That  a  high  degree  of  correlation  should 
exist  between  two  such  intimately  associated  functions 
is  natural.  Fertility  and  milk-producing  capacity  are 
in  reality  expressions  of  a  common  function.  To  improve 
the  milking  qualities  of  a  herd,  therefore,  the  prolific 
sows  should  be  retained.  That  there  is  sufficient  oppor- 
tunity for  selection  in  any  herd  is  indicated  by  the  wide 
variations  in  the  individual  records  shown  in  the  pre- 
ceding table. 

The  amount  of  milk  which  a  sow  gives  is  also  largely 
conditioned  on  her  feeding  during  the  suckling  period. 
In  order  to  secrete  a  large  amount  of  milk,  she  must 
have  the  raw  materials  from  which  to  manufacture  it. 
The  ration,  therefore,  that  is  rich  in  milk-producing 
properties  and  that  is  fed  in  liberal  amounts  is  the  one 
which  will  stimulate  and  make  possible  the  largest  pro- 
duction which  each  sow,  according  to  her  individuality 
and  breeding,  is  capable  of. 

1  Purdue  Univ.  thesis,  1915. 


116 


Pork  Production 


The  average  composition  of  sow's  milk  as  compared 
with  cow's  milk  is  shown  in  the  following  table  : 


TABLE  XXVII.  —  THE  COMPOSITION  OF  Sow's  MILK  COMPARED 

WITH    COW'S    MlLK1 


TOTAL 
SOLIDS 

FAT 

CASEIN 

AND 

ALBUMIN 

MILK 
SUGAR 

ASH 

Sow's  milk  .     . 
Cow's  milk  .     . 

Per  Cent 

19.00 
13.60 

Per  Cent 

6.70 
4.40 

Per  Cent 

5.90 
3.50 

Per  Cent 

5.40 
5.00 

Per  Cent 

1.00 
.70 

Difference   . 

5.40 

2.30 

2.40 

.40 

.30 

Sow's  milk  is  shown  to  be  richer  in  all  constituents  than 
cow's  milk,  particularly  in  casein  and  albumin  (protein), 
and  ash.  The  fact  that  sow's  milk  contains  less  water 
and  more  protein  and  ash,  largely  explains  why  pigs 
make  larger  and  more  economical  gains  to  a  unit  of  milk 
and  weight  than  do  calves. 


1  Henry  and  Morrison :  "  Feeds  and  Feeding." 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE   SUMMER  FEEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT 
OF   THE  BREEDING  HERD 

As  a  rule,  the  breeding  herd  during  the  summer  is  under 
more  favorable  conditions  for  the  maintenance  of  health 
and  breeding  thrift  than  in  the  winter.  With  most  of  the 
farm  fenced  hog-tight,  an  adequate  range,  plenty  of  green 
succulent  forage,  shade  and  good  water,  the  problems 
of  feeding  and  management  are  practically  solved.  The 
cost  of  feeding  and  the  work  of  handling  are,  furthermore, 
reduced  to  the  minimum  when  natural  rather  than 
artificial  conditions  prevail. 

FEEDING  AND   MANAGEMENT   OF  THE   PREGNANT   SOWS 

Number  of  litters  in  a  year. 

The  question  of  whether  two  crops  of  pigs  shall  be 
produced  on  the  farm  each  year  is  one  which  involves 
the  ability  of  the  sow  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  availability 
of  the  proper  equipment  on  the  other.  As  a  general  rule, 
the  mature  sow  is  capable  of  raising  two  litters  each  year. 
To  do  this  regularly  and  farrow  in  season  for  a  number  of 
successive  years,  however,  requires  fertile  and  reliable 
breeding  qualities,  and  also  good  feeding  and  careful 
management.  Allowing  226  days  for  two  gestation  periods 
and  112  days  for  the  time  between  farrowing  and  weaning 

117 


118  Pork  Production 

the  pigs,  27  days  are  left  in  a  year  of  365  days,  which 
will  give  sufficient  leeway  to  permit  the  sow  to  come 
in  heat  and  be  bred.  If  for  some  reason,  as  a  weakened 
condition  resulting  from  improper  feeding  or  a  lack 
of  natural  fertility,  she  fails  to  come  in  heat  promptly 
or  does  not  conceive  with  the  first  service,  the  chances 
are  that  she  will  farrow  late.  If  she  falls  behind  in 
her  breeding  schedule,  it  will  be  necessary  to  allow  her 
to  skip  a  period  in  order  to  prevent  the  pigs  coming  out 
of  season. 

A  certain  proportion  of  the  sows  in  the  herd  can  usually 
be  depended  on  for  two  litters  each  year.  When  fall 
pigs  are  raised,  the  practice  may  be  to  produce  a  limited 
number.  Approximately  75  per  cent  of  the  pigs  raised 
in  the  corn-belt  are  spring  farrowed.  The  plan  of  having 
each  sow  produce  three  litters  every  two  years  is  a  good 
one.  Gilts  which  farrowed  their  first  litters  when  from 
twelve  to  fourteen  months  of  age  should  not  produce 
their  second  until  they  are  two  years  old.  This  is  neces- 
sary to  insure  their  own  development,  on  which  depends 
their  future  usefulness  as  breeders. 

Those  who  raise  two  litters  a  year  claim  that  it  is  faulty 
management  to  allow  a  mature  sow  to  remain  idle  one- 
half  of  the  year ;  that  the  yearly  cost  of  feeding  the  sow 
is  so  great  that  one  cannot  afford  to  board  her  for  six 
months  without  some  return.  This  is  an  important 
point  and  in  line  with  the  growing  tendency  to  look 
on  the  brood  sow  as  a  producer  whose  business  it 
should  be  to  work  twelve  months  of  the  year  instead 
of  but  six. 

Success  in  raising  fall  pigs  will  depend  largely  on  the 
equipment  for  properly  handling  them  and  the  disposition 
to  give  them  the  best  of  care.  Warm  quarters  are  a 


Summer  Feeding  of  the  Breeding  Herd  119 

necessity  in  most  of  the  pork-producing  areas  if  pigs  are 
to  make  satisfactory  growth  during  the  winter.  Fall 
pigs  should  be  farrowed  early  so  that  they  may  make  a 
good  start  in  their  growth  before  cold  weather  sets  in. 
In  the  latitude  of  the  central  corn-belt,  they  should  come 
the  latter  part  of  August  or  early  in  September.  With 
warm  quarters,  a  clean  place  to  sleep,  and  good  feed,  fall 
pigs  will  do  nearly  as  well  as  spring  ones.  Such  pigs 
should  have  the  growth  by  spring  which  will  enable  them 
to  make  excellent  use  of  forage  crops  and  be  finished  in 
the  early  or  late  summer,  depending  on  the  method  of 
feeding  employed  and  their  development. 

However,  with  the  best  of  conditions,  it  is  not  easy 
successfully  to  raise  and  bring  through  the  winter  a  crop 
of  fall  pigs.  As  a  rule,  they  do  not  compare  favorably 
at  the  same  age  with  pigs  farrowed  in  the  spring.  Further- 
more, it  is  a  matter  of  general  observation  that  a  sow  does 
not  have  as  many  nor  as  strong  pigs  as  she  does  when 
bred  but  once  a  year.  Nevertheless,  with  proper  equip- 
ment and  good  care,  these  objections  are  more  than 
balanced  by  the  smaller  number  of  sows  which  it  is  neces- 
sary to  keep  in  order  to  produce  the  required  number  of 
pigs  for  the  farm. 

Feeding  and  management. 

After  the  sows  are  dried  off,  no  time  should  be  lost  in 
preparing  them  for  breeding.  The  early  fall  pig  is  usually 
a  safer  investment  than  the  late  one.  In  most  sections 
it  is  desirable,  as  a  rule,  to  begin  breeding  about  May 
first,  which  will  bring  the  first  pigs  the  last  week  in  August. 
The  importance  of  flushing,  or  feeding  the  sows  so  as  to 
cause  them  to  gain,  has  already  been  discussed  in  Chap**11* 
II.  The  best  method  of  feeding  in  the  spring  is  the  onr* 


120  Pork  Production 

which  depends  largely  on  legume  or  other  good  forage 
crops,  and  which  supplies  just  enough  grain  in  addition 
to  secure  a  gain  of  about  one  pound  a  day  for  each  sow 
until  bred. 

After  the  sows  are  safely  in  pig,  they  should  be  kept 
during  the  summer  in  the  condition  of  flesh  that  will 
insure,  with  exercise,  strong  pigs  and  a  good  milk-flow 
after  farrowing.  The  principles  discussed  in  Chapter 
III  should  be  followed  during  the  summer.  The  sows 
should  be  permitted  to  gain  as  much  as  they  lose  in 
farrowing  and  the  succeeding  suckling  period.  This  will 
be  an  average  of  75  or  80  pounds  for  mature  sows.  Year- 
ling sows  should  ordinarily  gain  more  than  this.  During 
the  first  ten  weeks  of  gestation,  there  should  be  a  sufficient 
supply  of  good  grass  or  forage  crops  to  make  any  grain 
feeding  unnecessary.  They  may,  therefore,  occupy  during 
this  time  the  same  pasture  and  quarters  as  the  sows  which 
are  not  bred.  If  it  is  possible  to  maintain  them  on  green 
crops  alone,  and  it  should  be,  it  will  not  only  mean  greater 
economy  in  their  feeding,  but  more  exercise  and  more 
healthful  surroundings.  The  beneficial  effects  of  such 
conditions  will  be  reflected  later  in  ease  of  pigging,  strong 
pigs,  and  a  state  of  health  that  will  support  a  good 
milk-flow. 

Sows  which  raise  two  litters  a  year,  however,  should 
not  be  allowed  to  become  too  thin  during  the  summer. 
It  is  important  that  they  make  the  required  gain  in  flesh, 
most  of  which  should  be  put  on  in  the  last  half  of  the 
summer.  Beginning  at  this  time  and  continuing  until 
they  farrow,  the  bred  sows  will  ordinarily  need  some 
grain  or  other  concentrated  feeds.  With  legume  forage 
crops,  these  should  be  largely  home-grown.  With  ordi- 
nary pastures,  a  small  amount  of  some  protein  feed  like 


Summer  Feeding  of  the  Breeding  Herd  121 

tankage,  linseed-oil  meal,  shorts  or  middlings  should  be 
fed  with  the  corn  or  other  grains  in  approximately  the 
same  proportions  as  recommended  for  winter  feeding 
on  page  56.  The  amount  of  grain  to  feed,  or  the  neces- 
sity of  feeding  grain  at  all,  will  depend  entirely  on  con- 
ditions, and  will  be  shown  by  the  condition  of  flesh  the 
sows  are  in.  The  judgment  of  the  feeder,  consequently, 
must  always  be  relied  on  to  determine  how  much  to  feed 
at  any  time. 

Plenty  of  range  and  green  feed  will  solve  the  problem 
of  supplying  exercise  for  the  bred  sows.  In  the  absence 
of  natural  shade,  which  is  most  to  be  desired,  artificial 
shades  should  be  provided.  These  should  be  so  con- 
structed and  located  as  to  receive  the  greatest  benefit 
from  the  breezes.  In  extremely  hot  weather,  an  artificial 
wallow  or  bath  located  in  the  shade  will  be  of  value  in 
helping  to  keep  down  the  temperature  of  the  sows.  If 
properly  taken  care  of,  kept  clean,  and  coal-tar  dip  or 
crude  oil  occasionally  applied,  it  is  of  value.  If  allowed 
to  become  filthy,  it  may  easily  become  more  harmful  than 
beneficial.  The  sleeping  quarters  or  shade  should  be 
kept  as  free  from  dust  as  possible  by  occasional  cleaning 
and  sprinkling  with  crude  oil. 

Sows  which  farrow  in  the  fall  should  be  given  the  same 
careful  attention  as  regards  feeding  and  handling  during 
the  farrowing  season  as  that  recommended  for  the  sows 
which  farrow  in  the  spring.  (See  page  69.)  The  fall 
litters  should  be  given  every  possible  consideration,  for 
a  good  start  before  cold  weather  begins  is  especially  de- 
sirable. During  the  winter,  the  pigs  should  have  the 
warmest  quarters  available,  and  they  should  never  be  fed 
less  than  the  amount  necessary  to  keep  them  in  a  thrifty 
growing  condition.  It  is  imperative,  also,  that  their  beds 


122  Pork  Production 

be  kept  clean  and  dry  and  opportunity  for  some  exercise 
provided. 

FEEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  OPEN  SOWS 

Fattening  the  culls. 

The  sows  which  have  lost  their  places  in  the  breeding 
herd  should  ordinarily  be  fattened  before  they  are  sent 
to  market.  Thirty  days  of  intensive  feeding  will  enable 
them  to  sell  at  sufficient  advance  over  the  average  "  grass- 
widow"  to  more  than  pay  the  costs.  In  this  time  a 
mature  vigorous  sow  should  make  a  gain  of  60  to  90 
pounds.  According  to  the  observation  of  men  who  are 
daily  on  the  market,  this  gain  will,  under  normal  con- 
ditions, enhance  the  selling  value  of  the  sow  by  25  cents 
a  hundred,  on  the  average.  This  gain  should  not  cost 
to  exceed  5J  pounds  of  grain  for  each  pound  of  gain, 
which,  with  the  usual  prices,  would  insure  a  good  profit 
from  fattening. 

Sows  which  are  to  be  fattened  should  have,  if  possible, 
access  to  a  patch  of  rape  or  some  legume  forage  crop  to 
supplement  their  grain.  Without  a  good  supply  of  forage, 
a  small  quantity  of  some  commercial  supplement  will  be 
necessary  for  the  best  results.  Some  tankage,  or  linseed- 
oil  meal,  or  shorts,  will  not  only  insure  greater  palatability 
for  the  ration  and  faster  gains,  but  also  cheaper  gains. 
Fifteen  parts  of  corn,  or  other  grain,  to  1  part  of  tankage 
or  meat-meal,  or  2  parts  linseed-oil  meal,  or  5  parts  shorts 
or  middlings,  by  weight,  will  make  a  balanced  ration. 
They  should  be  placed  ordinarily  on  full  feed  as  soon  as 
dried  off  and  continued  until  in  good  condition.  Just 
how  fat  they  should  be  made  will  depend  on  the  weather, 
the  market,  and  the  supply  of  feed. 


Summer  Feeding  of  the  Breeding  Herd  123 

Feeding  and  management  of  the  open  brood  sows. 

Mature  sows  which  are  not  bred  should  be  handled 
during  the  summer  in  a  way  that  will  reduce  to  a  minimum 
the  cost  of  their  keep,  yet  maintain  them  in  an  active 
healthy  condition.  It  is  possible  to  keep  a  mature  open 
sow  on  little  or  no  grain,  provided  good  forage  crops  are 
available.  Furthermore,  experience  has  shown  that  the 
most  economical  method  of  handling  is  to  provide  the 
crops  which  will  enable  them  to  get  most  of  their  living 
from  this  source.  These  crops  should  be  grown  in  suf- 
ficient abundance  so  that  the  sows,  as  well  as  the  pigs, 
may  have  an  adequate  supply.  A  thin  mature  sow  will 
maintain  her  weight  during  June  and  July  on  good  blue- 
grass  alone,  and  on  a  forage  crop  like  clover  or  alfalfa  or 
rape  will  make  some  gain.  Much  depends,  however,  on  her 
condition  and  previous  feeding.  If  the  sows  are  restricted 
to  over-stocked  pastures,  they  will  require  some  grain, 
especially  in  late  July  and  August  when  the  ordinary 
pastures  often  become  parched  and  bare.  When  grain 
feeding  is  necessary,  corn  or  other  home-grown  grain  is 
appropriate  since  their  need  for  protein  is  limited  to  the 
requirements  of  maintenance,  which  are  small.  It  should 
never  be  necessary  to  feed  the  sows  more  grain  than  1  per 
cent  of  their  weight  daily. 

In  addition  to  economy  of  feed  and  labor,  the  method 
of  feeding  recommended  above  has  the  merit  of  providing 
the  conditions  which  promote  exercise  and  thrift.  Sow.; 
that  have  had  plenty  of  range  during  the  summer  and 
a  minimum  of  grain  are  in  the  best  possible  state  of  health 
for  breeding  in  the  fall.  Such  conditions  also  provide 
healthful  surroundings  and  eliminate  many  of  the  chances 
of  disease. 


124  Pork  Production 

Feeding  the  yearling  sows. 

Gilts  that  have  farrowed  when  twelve  to  fourteen 
months  of  age  should  not,  as  a  rule,  be  bred  for  fall  litters. 
They  need  the  next  six  months  of  idleness  to  recuperate 
their  lost  energies  and  to  provide  the  opportunity  for  the 
further  development  necessary  to  make  them  good  repre- 
sentatives of  their  breed.  These  young  sows  should  not 
be  fattened,  but  fed  with  sufficient  liberality  to  insure 
good  growth.  For  this  reason,  they  will  need  some  grain 
during  the  summer.  This  should  not  be  straight  corn, 
but  a  ration  properly  supplemented  with  some  one  of  the 
common  nitrogenous  or  protein  feeds.  This  will  not  be 
required  in  large  quantity,  especially  if  the  sows  have 
access  to  a  good  forage  crop.  About  10  or  12  parts  of 
corn  or  other  grain,  to  1  part  tankage  or  meat-meal,  or  2 
parts  linseed-oil  meal,  or  4  or  5  parts  shorts  or  middlings, 
or  10  to  15  parts  of  skim-milk  or  buttermilk,  by  weight, 
will  supply  the  nutrients  in  the  correct  proportions  for 
best  results.  With  a  good  legume  forage,  they  will  require 
less  supplement  than  this;  in  fact,  they  will  get  along 
very  well  with  none. 

As  a  rule,  they  should  be  fed  considerably  less  than  the 
amount  they  will  eat.  The  guide  should  be  their  con- 
dition, rather  than  their  appetites.  They  should  be  com- 
pelled to  do  a  certain  amount  of  rustling,  for  in  addition 
to  the  food  value  of  succulent  feeds,  they  will  gain  much 
in  constitution  and  vigor  as  a  result  of  the  exercise  taken. 

COST  OF  SUMMER  FEEDING  SOWS 

Bred  sows. 

The  feed  cost  of  keeping  a  pregnant  sow  from  the  time 
her  pigs  are  weaned  in  the  spring  until  she  farrows  in  the 


Summer  Feeding  of  the  Breeding  Herd  125 


fall  is  perhaps  subject  to  more  fluctuation  than  is  the  cost 
at  any  other  season  of  the  year.  This  is  due  to  the  wide 
difference  in  the  types  of  management  employed  in  feeding 
the  sows  and  the  variation  in  the  value  and  price  of 
pasture  land  in  the  different  sections  of  the  country. 

The  feed  costs  as  estimated  in  the  following  tables  are 
confessedly  approximations.  The  effort  is  to  represent 
the  cost  under  different  conditions  by  making  three 
separate  sets  of  calculations.  The  ability  of  the  sow  to 
make  the  proper  gain  during  the  126  days  of  the  breeding 
and  gestation  periods  under  the  different  conditions  shown 
in  I,  II,  and  III  is  the  point  in  the  determination  about 
which  it  is  impossible  to  obtain  any  very  definite  figures. 

TABLE  XXVIII.  —  COST  OF  SUMMER  FEEDING  MATURE  BRED 
Sows  TO  TIME  OF  FARROWING 


METHOD  OP 

TOTAL  PAS- 
TURE OR  FOR- 

TOTAL CON- 

TOTAL  COST  OF 

CON- 

TOTAL 
FEED 

MANAGEMENT 

AGE  CHARGE 
126  DAYS 

FED  126  DAYS 

CENTRATES 

COST 
126  DAYS 

I 

at  1   I  per  lb.  —  » 

4.41 

$  5.01 

Poor   pasture, 

1     per      cent 

at  l\i  per  lb.  — 

5.52 

$  6.12 

no      special 

weight  daily 

at  lit  per  lb.  — 

6.61 

$  7.21 

forage  crops 

(350#     sow) 

at  Iffi  per  lb.  — 

7.72 

$  8.32 

or  legumes 

441  lb. 

at  2   t  per  lb.  — 

8.82 

$  9.42 

at  2\t  per  lb.  — 

11.02 

$11.62 

at  1   t  per  lb.  — 

3.31 

$  4.57 

Fair    pasture, 

at     30  1      per 

|      per     cent 
weight  daily 

at  \U  per  lb.  — 
at  1M  Per  lb.  — 

4.14 
4.96 

$  5.40 

$  6.22 

forage  crops 
or  legumes 

month  $1.26 

(350  #     sow) 
331  lb. 

at  \U  per  lb.  — 
at  2  t  Per  lb.  — 
at  2$t  Per  lb.  — 

5.79 
6.62 

8.27 

$  7.05 
$  7.88 
$  9.53 

at  1  t  Per  lb.— 

.76 

$  3.76 

III 

Specially 
grown     for- 
age crops  or 
legumes 

at  $12.00  2  per 
acre 
4     sows     per 
acre  $3.00 

|      per      cent 
weight  daily 
(360  #     sow) 
last  6  weelcs 
only  76  lb. 

at  \\t  per  lb.  — 
at  \U  per  lb.  — 
at  Hi  per  lb.  — 
at  2   t  Per  lb.  — 
at  2ff<  per  lb.  — 

.95 
1.14 
1.33 
1.52 
1.90 

$  3.95 
$  4.14 
$  4.33 
$  4.52 

$  4.90 

1  1  cent,  11  cents,  1£  cents,  If  cents,  2  cents,  and  2|  cents  a  pound  are  equivalent, 
respectively,  to  56  cents,  70  cents,  84  cents,  98  cents,  $1.12,  and  $1.40  a  bushel  for  corn. 

2  This  represents  cost  of  crops,  including  rent. 


126 


Pork  Production 


The  figures  are  based  largely  on  experience  in  handling 
sows  under  these  conditions.  One  pound  of  concentrated 
feed  used  in  these  calculations  is  equivalent  to  1  feed 
unit.  (See  page  61.) 

TABLE  XXIX.  —  COST  OF  MAINTAINING  MATURE  OPEN  Sow 
6  MONTHS  DURING  SUMMER 


TOTAL  PAS- 

METHOD OF 
MANAGEMENT 

TURE  OR  FOR- 
AGE CROP 
CHARGE 
180  DAYS 

TOTAL  CON- 
CENTRATES 
FED 

TOTAL  COST  OF  CON- 
CENTRATES 

FEED 
COST 
180  DAYS 

I 

%      per     cent 

at  1   t  per  Ib.  —  $2.92 

$3.82 

Poor  pasture, 

weight  daily 

at  Uj<  per  Ib.  —  $3.65 

$4.55 

no     special 

at     15f£    per 

(325  #     sow) 

at  l±l  perlb.  —  $4.38 

$5.28 

forage  crops 

month  $.90 

180  days 

at  Ifjf  perlb.  —  $5.11 

$6.01 

or  legumes 

292  Ib. 

at  2   i  per  Ib.  —  $5.84 

$6.74 

at  2%i  per  Ib.  —  $7.30 

$8.20 

II 

f     per       cent 

at  1   i  per  Ib.  —  $2.20 

$3.70 

Fair    pasture, 

weight  daily 

at  \U  per  Ib.  —  $2.75 

$4.25 

no      special 

at     25  i     per 

(325#     sow) 

at  l^per  Ib.  —  $3.30 

$4.80 

forage  crops 

month  $1.50 

180  days 

at  If  jf  perlb.  —  $3.85 

$5.35 

or  legumes 

220  Ib. 

at  2   1  per  Ib.  —  $4.40 

$5.90 

at  2}l  per  Ib.  —  $5.50 

$7.00 

III 

1      per     cent 

at  1   i  per  Ib.  —  $0.49 

$3.49 

Specially 

at  $12.00  per 

weight  daily 

at  l\i  per  Ib.  —  $  .61 

$3.61 

grown    for- 

acre ;  4  sows 

(325#     sow) 

at  H£  per  Ib.  —  $  .74 

$3.74 

age  crops  or 

to  the  acre 

60  days 

at  lU  per  Ib.  —  $  .86 

$3.86 

legumes 

$3.00 

49  Ib. 

at  2  t  per  Ib.  —  $  .98 

$3.98 

at  2^  perlb,  —  $1.23 

$4.23 

Open  mature  sows. 

The  cost  of  maintaining  an  open  mature  sow  during 
the  six  months  following  the  time  her  spring  litter  is 
weaned  will  depend  chiefly  on  the  charges  made  for  pasture 
and  forage  crops.  It  is  believed  that  the  figures  shown 
in  Table  XXIX  are  a  fair  approximation  of  the  average 
costs  under  different  conditions.  The  figures  are  for  sows 


Summer  Feeding  of  the  Breeding  Herd  127 


averaging  325  pounds,  which  are  maintained  at  a  constant 
weight  for  six  months  during  the  summer,  or  until  the 
beginning  of  the  fall  breeding  season. 

Open  yearling  sows. 

If  the  gilts  weigh  about  250  pounds  on  the  average 
when  they  wean  their  litters  in  the  spring,  they  should  be 
able  to  make  a  gain  of  75  pounds  during  the  succeeding 
six  months  without  becoming  too  fleshy.  To  make 
375-  to  400-pound  sows  in  medium  condition,  they  should 
gain  this  much.  The  cost  of  this  increase,  with  their 
maintenance,  will  depend  on  the  factors  already  discussed. 
With  fairly  good  pasture,  no  more  than  four  pounds  of 
grain  should  be  required  to  produce  one  pound  of  gain. 
With  these  conditions,  the  cost  will  be  as  shown  in  Table 
XXX.  With  legume  forage  crops,  instead  of  only  fair 
pasture,  the  cost  should  be  about  10  per  cent  less  than 
the  figures  given. 

TABLE  XXX.  —  COST  OF  FEEDING    OPEN  YEARLING   Sow 
6  MONTHS  DURING  SUMMER 


TOTAL 

COST  OF  CONCENTRATES 

TOTAL 

PASTURE 

CONCEN- 

FEED 

METHOD  OP 
MANAGEMENT 

OR 

FORAGE 

TRATES  TO 
PRODUCE 

COST 
i  fin 

CHARGE 

GAIN  75  LB. 

loU 

DAYS 

180  DAYS 

at  1   i  per  lb. 

—  $3.00 

$4.50 

Fair    pasture, 

at  l^perlb. 

-  $3.75 

$5.25 

no      special 

at  l^perlb. 

-  $4.50 

$6.00 

forage  crops 

$1.50 

300  lb. 

at  \H  per  lb. 

—  $5.25 

$6.75 

or  legumes 

at  2  ^perlb. 

-  $6.00 

$7.50 

at  2\i  per  lb. 

-  $7.50 

$9.00 

CHAPTER  VII 

FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  GROWING  AND 
FATTENING  PIGS 

WITH  the  pigs  weaned,  the  problem  of  the  feeder  is  to 
mature  the  crop  as  economically  as  possible  under  his 
conditions  without  sacrificing  the  weight  and  finish 
required  of  those  which  go  to  market  or  the  growthiness 
and  thrift  desirable  in  those  intended  for  the  breeding 
herd. 

THE  WEIGHT  AND  TYPE  OF  PIG  DESIRED  BY  THE  MARKET 

In  the  corn-belt,  no  single  type  or  weight  of  pig  sells 
at  the  top  of  the  market  in  all  seasons  of  the  year.  As 
a  general  rule,  the  market  pays  a  premium  for  the  weights 
which  are  most  scarce.  As  a  consequence,  in  the  late 
summer  and  early  fall  when  weights  are  the  heaviest, 
light  hogs  command  a  premium;  while  in  the  middle  of 
the  winter  and  early  spring  when  light  weights  pre- 
dominate, the  heavier  hogs  sell  at  a  slight  advance.  (See 
Chapter  XVI,  page  387.)  In  recent  years  the  tend- 
ency has  been  for  both  producer  and  consumer  to  favor 
the  lighter  weights.  The  farmer  with  higher  priced 
land,  feed,  and  labor  has  found  the  method  of  more 
intensive  feeding  and  earlier  marketing  profitable.  Like- 
wise, changing  demands  during  this  time  have  been 
toward  the  lighter  handier- weight  cuts.  This  has  been 
due  to  the  changing  tastes  and  requirements  of  the  con- 

128 


Feeding  and  Care  of  Pigs  129 

sumer,  and  to  the  improvements  in  methods  of  curing, 
refrigeration,  and  transportation  of  pork  products. 

The  weight  and  type  of  hog  in  greatest  demand  by  the 
market  is  not  necessarily  the  best  for  the  farmer  to  pro- 
duce in  a  given  season.  When  corn  is  cheap  and  hogs 
relatively  high,  it  is  profitable  to  sacrifice  some  on  selling 
price  a  pound  for  heavier  weights.  On  the  other  hand, 
when  feed  is  high  and  hogs  cheap,  the  feeder  is  disposed 
to  market  early  and  at  immature  weights.  In  general, 
however,  the  requirements  of  the  packer  and  shipper 
coincide  fairly  well  with  the  type  and  weight  of  hog  which 
the  farmers  of  the  corn-belt  find  most  profitable  to  produce. 
This  is  a  hog  weighing  from  200  to  275  pounds  and  of  the 
general  lard  type,  what  the  packer  calls  a  medium  weight 
butcher  hog.  Ordinarily,  it  is  advisable  to  market  at 
a  weight  somewhere  between  these  limits. 

Canadian  farmers  cannot  afford  to  compete  with  those 
of  the  corn-belt  by  producing  the  fat-back  lard  hog. 
Both  their  feed  supply  and  packing  interests  favor  the 
production  of  the  type  of  hog  that  will  meet  the  require- 
ments of  curers  of  the  best  British  bacon.  This  means 
a  hog  of  strictly  bacon  type,  full  of  lean  meat,  and  capable 
of  producing  the  "Wiltshire  side."  (See  page  401.) 
Pigs  of  this  type,  sometimes  called  "singers"  on  the 
Chicago  market,  weighing  from  160  to  220  pounds  and 
finished  so  that  the  layer  of  fat  on  the  back  and  loin  is 
no  more  than  1^  to  Ij  inches  in  thickness,  is  the  kind 
which  experience  has  shown  the  great  bulk  of  northern 
farmers  should  seek  to  place  on  the  market.1  These 
requirements  of  weight  and  quality  are  standard,  and 
practically  constant  from  year  to  year  and  from  season 
to  season.  The  price  received  for  the  finished  pigs  is 
1  Bull.  10,  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Dominion  of  Canada. 


130  Pork  Production 

more  a  question  of  the  quality  of  bacon  which  they  will 
produce  than  the  result  of  any  seasonal  fluctuation  in  the 
number  supplied. 

GENERAL  SYSTEMS   OF  HANDLING  AND   FEEDING 

One  system  of  feeding  the  spring  pigs  intended  for  mar- 
ket is  to  grow  them  rather  slowly  during  the  summer  by 
the  maximum  use  of  forage  crops  and  a  minimum  of  grain, 
finishing  them  late  the  following  winter  or  spring.  An- 
other practice  of  handling  is  that  of  feeding  practically 
full  rations  from  start  to  finish  and  having  them  ready 
for  market  by  fall  or  early  winter.  The  bulk  of  the  hogs 
sold  at  the  great  central  markets  is  produced  by  systems 
between  these  two  extremes. 

The  most  profitable  system  to  follow  as  a  policy  on 
any  particular  farm  must  be  determined  by  the  conditions. 
There  are  many  types  of  farming  where  hogs  are  produced, 
and  the  method  of  feeding  should  be  in  harmony  with  the 
plan  of  management  of  the  farm,  in  accord  with  the  pur- 
pose for  which  the  hogs  are  produced.  On  many  farms 
hogs  are  raised  for  home  consumption  only,  in  which  case 
the  problem  is  to  have  the  pigs  at  the  condition  and 
weight  when  it  is  most  appropriate  and  convenient  for 
farm  butchering.  The  most  economical  method  of 
procedure  under  these  conditions,  no  doubt,  is  to  depend 
chiefly  on  forage  crops,  kitchen  and  farm  wastes,  reducing 
largely  the  use  of  grain  until  the  last  month  or  six  weeks 
of  feeding. 

On  other  farms,  pigs  are  produced  mainly  for  the  purpose 
of  following  cattle  during  the  winter,  to  save  the  wastes 
of  the  feed  yard  by  converting  them  into  pork.  For  this 
use  the  pigs  should  be  vigorous  and  growthy,  and  inclined 


Feeding  and  Care  of  Pigs  131 

more  to  thinness  than  to  fatness.  The  amount  of  grain 
necessary  to  feed  during  the  summer  to  produce  an  active, 
strtmg-boned  pig  which  will  weigh  in  November  from  100 
to  150  pounds  will  depend  on  the  time  of  farrowing  and 
the  quality  and  abundance  of  the  green  feed  available. 
With  good  forage  crops  and  early  farrowing,  no  more  than 
half  a  ration,  or  2  per  cent  of  their  weight  daily,  should 
be  sufficient  to  produce  this  weight  with  pigs  of  the  right 
type.  With  April  and  May  pigs  and  no  special  forage 
crops,  heavier  grain  feeding  would  be  necessary.  Under 
such  conditions,  it  is  difficult  to  have  the  pigs  at  satis- 
factory weights  without  making  them  too  fat  for  good 
cattle  hogs. 

When  hogs  are  produced  in  relatively  large  numbers 
and  are  the  principal  live-stock  product  of  the  farm,  the 
question  of  intensity  of  feeding  during  the  summer  should 
be  determined  for  any  year  by  the  availability  of  forage 
crops,  the  price  of  feed,  and  market  conditions.  Intensive 
feeding  and  early  marketing  in  the  corn-belt  necessitate 
early  farrowing  and  a  large  use  of  old  corn.  The  higher 
cost  of  feed  and  the  special  attention  required  by  early 
pigs  at  farrowing  time,  however,  are  believed  by  many  to 
be  more  than  compensated  for  by  the  better  market  and 
the  shorter  period  of  dry  lot  feeding  necessary.  (See 
Chapter  XVI,  page  387.)  On  the  other  hand,  the 
system  of  feeding  which  finishes  the  pigs  in  the  middle 
or  late  winter  does  not  require  so  large  a  use  of  old  corn, 
may  rely  more  largely  on  forage  crops  for  the  summer 
gains,  and  postpones  any  heavy  feeding  until  the  new  crop 
is  available.  As  indicated  by  present  practices  in  the 
corn-belt,  the  general  farmer  believes  this  system  to  be 
one  well  adapted  to  his  conditions.  With  the  increase 
in  the  practice  of  hogging-down  corn  and  the  need  of  hogs 


132  Pork  Production 

on  most  farms  to  follow  cattle,  the  present  systems  of 
feeding  and  handling  will  probably  change  but  little. 


FOOD   DEMANDS   OF  THE   GROWING   AND   FATTENING   PIG 

The  successful  growing  and  fattening  of  pigs  require 
that  they  be  supplied  with  those  feeds  which  will  meet 
their  body  needs.  Two  general  classes  of  feeds  are  re- 
quired in  the  proper  development  of  every  young  animal : 
first,  those  which  produce  fat  and  heat ;  and  second,  those 
which  supply  bone  and  muscle.  The  first  is  commonly 
called  carbohydrate  or  fat-producing  feeds,  and  the  latter, 
protein  or  growing  feeds.  For  the  most  vigorous  and 
economical  development,  these  constituents  must  be  fed 
in  the  proportions  which  will  satisfy  without  waste  the 
demands  of  the  pig  for  growth  as  well  as  fat  production ; 
i.e.,  the  ration  must  be  balanced.  These  demands  vary 
with  the  age  and  development  of  the  pig.  The  weanling 
pig  weighing  35  pounds  requires  a  considerably  larger 
proportion  of  growing  elements  than  does  the  mature  hog 
when  being  fattened.  In  the  development  of  the  pig 
from  weaning  to  the  market  weight  of  250  pounds,  there- 
fore, the  requirements  for  bone  and  muscle-building  feeds 
decrease  very  regularly,  while  the  need  and  capacity  for 
using  the  heat  and  fat-producing  feeds  progressively 
increase. 

When  feeds  are  high  priced,  as  is  now  the  rule,  it  is 
not  possible  to  grow  pigs  successfully  and  with  profit 
if  attention  is  not  given  to  feeding  rations  which  are 
balanced.  The  importance  of  this  has  been  repeatedly 
emphasized  by  the  experiences  of  practice  and  the  results 
of  carefully  conducted  feeding  tests  at  the  experiment 
stations. 


Feeding  and  Care  of  Pigs  133 

CORN   AS  A   PIG   FEED 

The  American  farmer  has  no  cereal  equal  to  corn  for 
fattening  live-stock.  Its  unusual  palatability,  its  con- 
centration and  richness  in  fat-producing  qualities,  its 
mildly  laxative  effects,  its  keeping  qualities  and  physical 
texture,  make  it  a  feed  unequaled  for  fat  production.  The 
fact  that  65  per  cent  of  the  pork  produced  in  the  United 
States  is  grown  in  the  corn-belt  is  largely  due  to  the  feeding 
qualities  of  this  grain.  The  greatness  of  corn  as  a  crop 
in  this  region  is  in  part  due  to  its  extensive  use  in  pork 
production.  Probably  no  animal  on  the  farm  is  capable 
of  using  so  large  a  proportion  of  corn  in  his  diet  as  the  lard 
hog. 

The  faults  of  corn  as  a  pig  feed  are  that  it  lacks  in 
protein  and  mineral  matter  (ash),  which  are  indispensable 
for  the  growth  and  development  of  muscle  and  bone  tis- 
sues. Corn  is  so  over-abundantly  rich  in  carbohydrates 
and  deficient  in  protein  and  mineral  matter  that  its  grow- 
ing properties  have  been  sacrificed  to  fattening  properties. 
Furthermore,  the  proteins  which  it  does  contain  are 
inferior,  for  they  do  not  supply  the  kinds  and  variety 
necessary  to  meet  all  the  body  needs.  The  mineral 
supply  of  corn  is  likewise  deficient  in  the  kind  of  elements 
supplied.  Lime,  or  calcium,  which,  with  phosphorus, 
makes  up  more  than  80 1  per  cent  of  the  ash  of  bone,  is 
present  in  extremely  meager  amounts. 

Experiments  demonstrating  the  deficiencies  of  corn  alone 
as  a  feed  for  growing  and  fattening  pigs. 

That  growing  and  fattening  pigs  do  not  do  well  when 
restricted  to  a  diet  of  straight  corn  is  admirably  demon- 

1  Jordan :    "  The  Feeding  of  Animals,"  page  46. 


134' 


Pork  Production 


strated  by  the  results  of  a  practical  feeding  test  made  at 
the  Iowa  Experiment  Station 1  in  the  spring  of  1906. 
Thirty-six  shotes,  averaging  approximately  136  pounds, 
were  divided  equally  into  four  lots.  Lot  I  was  fed  a 
ration  of  straight  corn-meal,  and  lots  II,  III,  and  IV 
rations  containing  corn-meal  and  different  proportions 
of  meat-meal.  The  results  from  the  lot  fed  corn  alone 
and  that  fed  ten  parts  of  corn  and  one  of  meat-meal,  by 
weight,  are  here  reported. 

TABLE  XXXI.  —  CORN  ALONE  VERSUS  CORN  AND  MEAT-MEAL 
(Iowa  Exp.  Sta.,  Bull.  No.  91) 


RATIONS  FED 

LOT  I 
CORN-MEAL. 

Lor  II 
10  CORN-MEAL 
1  MEAT-MEAL 

Average  daily  ration  fed  . 
Number  pigs  per  lot    ... 
Average  initial  weight  per  pig 
Average  final  weight  per  pig 
Average  daily  gain  per  pig    . 
Feed  required  to  produce  100 
Ib  gain             

6.48#  corn-meal 
9 
134.9# 
251.2# 
1.163# 

556  6jf  corn-meal 

7.6  1#  corn-meal 
.76  meat-meal 
9 
137.  1# 
322.9# 
1.858# 
409.9$  corn-meal 
40  9  meat-meal 

The  test  began  on  March  13  and  closed  June  31, 
covering  a  period  of  100  days.  The  pigs  used  were  of 
mixed  breeding,  growthy,  and  in  rather  thin  flesh  at  the 
beginning  of  the  test,  which  accounted  in  part  for  their 
rapid  gains.  They  were  confined  to  dry  yards,  40  by  80 
feet,  with  open  sheds  for  shelter.  Every  effort  was  made 
to  secure  uniformity  in  the  different  lots  of  individual 
pigs,  in  the  conditions  of  housing,  and  in  the  methods  of 
feeding  employed.  The  number  of  pigs  in  each  lot,  the 
1  Kennedy  and  Robbins :  Bull.  91. 


Feeding  and  Care  of  Pigs  135 

length  of  the  experiment,  and  the  care  exercised  to  make 
all  conditions  identical  give  assurance  that  the  results 
fairly  show  the  merits  of  the  rations  fed  under  the  con- 
ditions of  this  experiment.  The  results  of  this  test  are 
shown  in  Table  XXXI. 

In  growing  and  fattening  pigs  for  market,  the  value 
of  the  rations  fed  is  determined  by  the  rapidity  of  the 
gains,  the  amount  or  cost  of  feed  required  to  produce 
100  pounds  of  gain,  and  the  character  of  the  finish  at- 
tained by  the  pigs  (selling  price)  at  the  end  of  the  feed- 
ing period.  This  does  not  consider  the  greater  fertility 
value  of  the  dropping  produced  by  pigs  fed  on  the  better 
rations. 

There  was  a  marked  difference  in  the  gains  on  the 
two  rations.  The  pigs  fed  the  balanced  ration  made 
59.75  per  cent  faster  gains  than  did  those  fed  the  un- 
balanced ration.  While  those  receiving  corn  alone  made 
an  average  gain  of  116  pounds,  the  pigs  receiving  in 
addition  to  corn  .76  pound  of  meat-meal  daily,  gained 
185  pounds.  Assuming  a  uniform  rate  of  gain,  the  pigs 
fed  corn  and  meat-meal  were  as  heavy  at  the  end  of  62 
days'  feeding  as  were  those  fed  corn  alone  at  the  end 
of  100  days'  feeding.  There  was,  on  the  average,  a  saving 
of  32  days  in  the  time  required  to  produce  100  pounds  of 
gain.  All  this  means  an  earlier  and  usually  a  better 
market,  and  a  saving  in  labor,  interest,  and  risk,  con- 
siderations of  no  little  importance  to  the  practical  hog- 
man. 

The  principal  reason  why  pigs  fed  a  balanced  ration 
always  outgain  those  given  an  unbalanced  one  like 
corn  alone,  is  because  it  is  eaten  with  greater  relish  and 
consequently  consumed  in  larger  amounts.  Although 
corn  is  an  unusually  palatable  feed,  the  pigs  fed  the 


136  Pork  Production 

balanced  ration  in  this  experiment  ate  1.89  pounds  more 
daily  to  each  pig  than  those  receiving  corn  alone,  or  an 
increase  of  29  per  cent. 

The  second  and  perhaps  the  most  important  difference 
in  these  two  rations  was  that  in  the  amount  of  feed 
required  to  produce  a  given  gain.  Those  receiving  corn 
alone  required  556.6  pounds  of  feed  for  each  100  pounds 
of  gain,  while  those  fed  10  parts  corn  and  1  part  meat- 
meal  needed  only  450.8  pounds.  This  is  a  saving  of 
approximately  106  pounds  of  feed  in  the  production  of 
100  pounds  of  gain ;  or,  in  other  words,  the  balanced 
ration  required  19  per  cent  less  feed  for  the  same  gain. 
Expressed  in  another  way,  a  bushel  of  corn  (56  pounds) 
in  the  corn-alone  lot  produced  10  pounds  of  pork,  while 
56  pounds  of  the  balanced  ration  produced  12.42  pounds 
of  pork.  Every  pound  of  meat-meal  fed  in  the  balanced 
ration  had  the  equivalent  value  of  3.58  pounds  of  corn 
fed  in  the  corn-alone  ration,  in  producing  100  pounds  of 
gain.  If  a  bushel  of  corn  fed  in  lot  I  had  a  value  of  56 
cents,  a  ton  of  meat-meal,  as  fed  in  this  experiment, 
would  have  a  corresponding  value  of  $71.60.  If  the  corn 
is  valued  at  70  cents  a  bushel,  the  value  of  the  meat-meal 
would  be  $81.40  a  ton;  with  corn  at  84  cents  a  bushel, 
the  value  of  the  meat-meal  would  be  $107.40  a  ton. 

The  corn-alone  ration  did  not  produce  economical  gains 
because  corn  does  not  contain  sufficient  protein  or  mineral 
matter  of  the  kinds  to  satisfy  the  needs  of  the  pigs  for 
muscle  and  bone  development.  Although  pigs  of  this 
age  when  fed  to  such  heavy  market  weights  are  capable 
of  using  large  amounts  of  carbohydrates,  or  fat-producing 
foods,  their  requirements  for  protein,  or  growth-producing 
foods  are  none  the  less  imperative.  An  efficient  use  of 
the  ration  is  possible  only  when  the  supply  of  growing 


Feeding  and  Care  of  Pigs  137 

constituents  is  fed  in  quantities  above  a  certain  minimum, 
or  in  larger  amounts  than  are  contained  in  corn.  As 
a  consequence,  the  pigs  in  this  experiment  which  were 
restricted  to  a  diet  of  straight  corn  were  subjected  to 
a  mild  form  of  starvation,  not  so  acute  with  pigs  of  this 
development  as  occurs  with  those  of  younger  age,  the 
effect  of  which  was  to  lower  the  general  vitality  and 
vigor  and  hence  reduce  their  capacity  and  efficiency  as 
pork-producing  machines. 

Both  lots  of  pigs  were  appraised  by  market  experts  at 
the  close  of  the  experiment  and  valued  at  the  same  price 
a  hundredweight.  Both  lots  were  uniformly  very  fat. 
Although  the  pigs  which  received  the  balanced  ration 
were  more  than  70  pounds  heavier  and  had  smoother 
and  more  glossy  coats  of  hair,  those  fed  corn  alone  were 
practically  as  well  finished,  and  representing  a  more 
popular  weight,  sold  at  the  same  price.  A  summary  of 
all  similar  data  from  other  experiments  in  which  well- 
grown  pigs  were  fed  supports  the  conclusion  that,  as  a 
rule,  the  feeding  of  a  balanced  ration  has  little  effect  in 
increasing  the  dressing  percentage  or  enhancing  the  selling 
price  over  pigs  fed  corn  alone.  This  is  because  the  corn 
ration  tends  to  check  growth  and  stimulate  or  hasten 
fat  production.  The  chief  benefits  to  be  derived,  there- 
fore, from  feeding  a  nitrogenous  supplement  with  corn 
to  well-grown  shotes  which  are  being  fattened  for  market 
are  in  the  faster  gains,  the  earlier  market,  and  the  saving 
of  feed  required  to  produce  a  given  gain.  These  benefits 
are  amply  sufficient  to  condemn  the  practice  of  feeding 
corn  alone. 

The  pigs  fed  in  the  above  experiment  averaged  135 
pounds  at  the  beginning  of  the  test,  and  were  well  grown 
and  thin  in  flesh.  They  were  probably  late  spring  pigs 


138  Pork  Production 

of  the  previous  year.  If  the  feeding  of  corn  alone  to  pigs 
of  this  development  means  such  waste  of  feed  and  time, 
one  should  expect  the  effects  of  such  feeding  on  weanling 
pigs  to  be  very  much  more  pronounced  or  disastrous. 
That  such  is  the  case  is  the  experience  of  every  observant 
feeder.  Investigations  show  that  young  pigs  restricted 
to  a  diet  of  corn  alone,  especially  when  denied  the  oppor- 
tunity of  rooting,  very  early  develop  evidences  of  im- 
perfect nutrition.  The  appetite  becomes  weak  and 
depraved,  and  they  display  a  craving  for  earthy  materials, 
ashes,  charcoal,  cement,  limestone,  and  the  like.  If  some 
of  these  sources  of  ash  or  mineral  ingredients  are  not 
supplied,  especially  if  the  water  is  deficient  in  salts, 
evidences  of  starvation  become  prominent.  They  cease 
to  make  gains,  the  coat  becomes  rough,  the  eyes  dull, 
and  the  gait  uncertain.  Not  only  are  the  rate  and  cost 
of  gains  with  young  pigs  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  results 
obtained  from  well-balanced  rations,  but  when  long- 
continued  the  effects  may  even  result  in  the  death  of  the 
weaker  individuals. 

To  show  the  possible  effects  of  a  ration  of  corn  alone  on 
the  size  and  strength  of  bone  of  growing  pigs,  Burnett 
of  the  Nebraska  Experiment  Station  made  studies  of 
fundamental  importance  to  the  breeder  and  feeder. 
Twenty  pure-bred  Duroc-Jersey  pigs,  averaging  62  pounds, 
were  divided  into  five  equal  lots  of  four  pigs  each.  From 
August  2,  1907,  to  January  3,  1908,  a  period  of  154  days, 
they  were  fed  the  following  rations :  Lot  I,  corn-meal 
alone;  lot  II,  75  per  cent  corn-meal  and  25  per  cent 
shorts;  lot  III,  25  per  cent  corn-meal  and  75  per  cent 
skim-milk ;  lot  IV,  90  per  cent  corn-meal  and  10  per  cent 
tankage;  lot  V,  90  per  cent  corn-meal  and  10  per  cent 
bone-meal.  During  the  first  84  days  of  the  test,  all  the 


Feeding  and  Care  of  Pigs 


139 


lots  were  on  alfalfa  pasture,  which  undoubtedly  insured 
a  better  showing  for  the  pigs  in  lot  I  than  would  other- 
wise have  been  possible.  For  the  remainder  of  the  time, 
they  were  confined  to  the  dry  lot  and  the  above  rations. 
The  interesting  results  of  this  experiment  are  shown  in 
the  following  table : 

TABLE  XXXII.  —  THE  EFFECTS  OF  DIFFERENT  RATIONS   ON 
THE  SIZE  AND  BREAKING  STRENGTH  OF  BONE 

(Neb.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bull.  107) 


AVERAGE 

RATIONS  FED 

AVERAGE 
WEIGHT 
OF  GREEN 
BONES  IN 
GRAMSI 

AVERAGE 
CIRCUM- 
FERENCE 
OF  BONES 
IN  MILLI- 
METERS 

AVERAGE 
THICKNESS 
OF  BONE 
WALL  IN 
MILLI- 
METERS 

PERCENT- 
AGE OF 
MINERAL 
MATTER 
IN  GREEN 
BONE 

BREAKING 
STRENGTH 

OF  BONE3 
PER   100# 

LIVE 
WEIGHT  OF 

PIGS 

Ib. 

Corn-meal,     100% 

1097 

73. 

2.8 

25.4 

325 

C  orn-meal  ,       75  % 

Shorts,              25% 

1044 

69.9 

2.9 

27.8 

396 

Corn-meal,       25% 

Skim-milk        75% 

1232 

71.3 

3.7 

32.7 

509 

Corn-meal,       90% 

Tankage,          10% 

1219 

73.6 

3.7 

35.5 

580 

Corn-meal,       90% 

Ground  bone,  10% 

1196 

71.6 

4.1 

37.2 

681 

Several  striking  facts  stand  out  in  these  results.  The 
breaking  strength  of  the  bones  of  pigs  fed  skim-milk, 
tankage,  or  ground  bone  with  corn  was  from  56  to  109 

1  The  above  figures  were  obtained  by  averaging  the  data  for 
the  following  bones  of  each  pig  :  2  femur,  2  tibia,  2  humerus,  and 
2  ulna  and  radius. 


140  Pork  Production 

per  cent  greater  than  for  the  pigs  fed  corn  alone.  This 
greater  strength  was  not  due  to  bone  of  larger  apparent 
size,  but  to  a  thicker  bone- wall  and  a  denser  structure 
of  the  bone  itself.  The  figures  show  that  the  circum- 
ference of  the  bones  was  not  affected  by  the  ration,  but 
the  weight,  thickness  of  wall,  and  percentage  of  mineral 
matter  present  was  very  markedly  affected.  The  addition 
of  25  per  cent  of  shorts  to  a  corn  ration  would  appear  to 
have  little  effect  on  the  strength  or  composition  of  the 
bone  produced  when  compared  with  corn  alone.  This 
result  seems  reasonable  in  view  of  the  fact  that  shorts 
contain  a  relatively  small  amount  of  mineral  matter, 
particularly  calcium.  Other  studies  by  Burnett  and 
similar  studies  by  Carlyle 1  and  Forbes 2  have  given 
results  which  confirm  those  here  reported. 

This  experiment  supplies  emphatic  evidence  of  the 
deficiency  of  corn  as  a  bone-building  feed.  Chemical 
analyses  have  made  it  known  that  this  is  chiefly  due  to 
the  extremely  small  amount  of  calcium  or  lime  contained. 
The  practical  effect  of  adding  tankage  or  skim-milk  was 
not  only  to  supply  needed  proteins,  but  also  to  furnish 
the  calcium  and  other  inorganic  elements  in  which  corn 
is  so  notoriously  lacking.  Although  this  experiment 
does  not  prove  directly  that  the  feeding  of  corn  alone 
causes  pigs  to  go  off  on  their  feet  and  legs,  it  supplies 
very  strong  indirect  evidence  that  this  may  be  the  case. 
Other  factors  affect  the  ability  of  a  hog  to  stand  square 
and  strong  on  his  legs  and  feet,  but  that  the  quality  or 
composition  of  the  rations  fed  has  an  important  influence 
in  supplying  strength  or  weakness  cannot  be  questioned 
seriously.  To  develop  a  breeding  herd  noted  for  good 

1  Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  104. 

2  Ohio  Exp.  Sta.  Bulls.  213  and  283. 


Feeding  and  Care  of  Pigs  141 

legs  and  sound  pasterns  and  feet  requires,  therefore,  not 
only  care  in  the  selection  of  the  breeding  stock,  but  also 
the  feeding  of  rations  during  the  growing  period  which 
promote  instead  of  prevent  the  development  of  strong 
bone. 

Although  wheat,  rye,  barley,  kaffir,  and  milo  contain 
somewhat  more  protein  and  ash  than  does  corn,  they 
are  very  similar  in  their  general  feeding  qualities.  Like 
corn,  they  have  an  excess  of  those  constituents  (carbo- 
hydrates) which  promote  fat-production  and  retard 
growth,  and  a  deficiency  of  those  materials  (protein  and 
ash)  which  stimulate  muscle  and  bone  development. 
The  above  experimental  results  from  the  feeding  of  corn 
alone  may,  therefore,  be  taken  as  a  fairly  reliable  in- 
dication of  the  results  to  be  obtained  with  any  of  these 
grains  when  fed  singly  and  alone. 

Realizing  the  necessity  of  feeding  with  corn  or  other 
home-grown  grain  feeds  which  tend  to  balance  it  by 
furnishing  protein  and  mineral  matter,  the  hog-man  is 
confronted  with  the  question  of  the  most  economical 
method  of  supplying  these  necessary  materials.  There 
are  two  available  sources  of  feeds  of  this  nature :  forage 
crops  which  may  be  grown  on  the  farm,  and  so-called 
nitrogenous  or  protein  supplements  which  may  be  pur- 
chased on  the  market.  The  use  of  one  or  both  of  these 
classes  of  feeds  in  conjunction  with  the  home-grown 
grain  is  necessary  for  the  most  rapid  or  the  most  econom- 
ical growth  of  the  pig  crop. 


THE  ADVANTAGES  OF  FORAGE  CROPS 

The  attention  which  has  been  directed  in  recent  years 
by  the  experiment  stations,  extension  lecturers,  and  the 


142  Pork  Production 

agricultural  press  to  the  merits  of  forage  crops  as  means 
of  balancing  the  corn  ration  and  improving  present 
methods  of  pork  production  has  had  the  effect  of  stimu- 
lating interest  and  inquiry  into  the  possibilities  of  these 
crops  and  the  place  which  they  should  occupy  in  a  well- 
organized  plan  of  management  for  the  hog  farm.  In  the 
following  pages  the  results  of  experimental  feeding  tests 
are  presented  together  with  the  teachings  which  a  careful 
study  of  these  results  seems  to  justify. 

Dry  lot  versus  forage  feeding. 

In  Table  XXXIII  are  presented  the  summarized  results 
of  eleven  experiments 1  in  which  the  dry  lot  method  of 
feeding  pigs  was  compared  with  that  of  feeding  on  forage. 
In  all  cases,  the  experiments  began  soon  after  the  pigs 
were  weaned  and  continued  throughout  most  of  the 
summer,  covering  an  average  period  of  104  days, 
Timothy  was  used  in  three  of  the  tests,  rape  in  four, 
alfalfa  in  two,  a  mixture  of  rape,  Canada  field  peas  and 
oats  in  one,  and  soybeans  in  one.  In  each  experiment  the 
same  grain  rations  were  fed  in  the  dry  lot  and  on  forage, 
except  in  one  of  the  Iowa  tests  when  the  proportion  of 
meat-meal  to  corn  fed  on  forage  was  slightly  less  than  that 
fed  in  the  dry  lot.  With  but  one  exception,  the  pigs  in 
both  the  dry  and  forage  lots  were  full  fed ;  i.e.  given  all 
the  grain  they  would  eat.  It  should  also  be  noted  that 
in  every  comparison  the  ration  fed  in  the  dry  lot  was 
practically  a  balanced  one. 

In  no  case  is  there  an  experiment  included  in  which  corn 
alone  was  fed.  In  other  words,  each  experiment  in- 
cluded in  this  summary  is  a  test  of  the  balanced  ration 

1  Iowa  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  91 ;  Kans.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  192 ;  Ohio 
Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  242. 


Feeding  and  Care  of  Pigs 


143 


fed  in  the  dry  lot  and  the  same  ration  on  forage.  The 
result  of  feeding  as  large  a  proportion  of  nitrogenous 
supplement  in  the  forage  as  in  the  dry  lot  was  to  supply, 
in  most  cases,  an  excess  of  protein  to  the  forage-fed  pigs. 


TABLE  XXXIII.  —  SUMMARY  —  DRY  LOT  VERSUS  FORAGE 
FEEDING  (Av.  11  EXPS.) 


TOTAL 
NUMBER 
PIGS 

AVERAGE 
LENGTH 

TEST 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 

AVERAGE 
CONCEN- 
TRATES RE- 
QUIRED TO 
PRODUCE 
100  LB. 
GAIN 

AVERAGE 
CONCEN- 
TRATES 
SAVED  PER 
ACRE 
FORAGE 

AVERAGE 
AMOUNT 
PORK  AC- 
CREDITED 
1  ACRE 
FORAGE 

days 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Dry  lot 

62 

104 

.85 

413.25 

— 

— 

Forage 

115 

104 

1.17 

351.29 

1102.42 

266.77 

The  summarized  statement  of  these  experiments  shows 
that  the  pigs  in  the  dry  lot  gained  an  average  of  .85  pound 
daily,  while  those  on  forage  gained  1.17  pounds.  This 
is  a  difference  of  practically  -§-  pound  daily  for  each  pig. 
In  other  words,  the  pigs  on  forage  were  33  pounds  heavier 
at  the  end  of  104  days'  feeding.  When  rapid  gains  and 
an  early  market  are  sought  by  the  feeder,  the  importance 
of  providing  green  crops  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the 
pigs  on  forage  were  practically  as  heavy  at  the  end  of 
2|  months'  feeding  as  were  those  in  the  dry  lot  at  the 
end  of  3j  months'  feeding. 

The  average  amount  of  concentrates  (corn  +  supple- 
ment) required  to  produce  100  pounds  of  gain  was  413.25 
pounds  for  the  dry  lots  and  351.29  pounds  for  the  forage 
lots.  The  green  feed  consumed  by  the  forage  lots  caused 
an  average  saving  of  62  pounds  of  concentrates  in  the 
production  of  each  100  pounds  of  gain.  Whether  or  not 


144  Pork  Production 

the  saving  of  this  quantity  of  corn  and  supplement  by 
the  forage  eaten  effected  a  saving  in  the  actual  cost  of 
producing  a  given  gain  may  be  considered  more  profitably 
in  the  light  of  the  figures  given  in  the  last  two  spaces  of 
the  summary  table. 

An  acre  of  forage  in  these  experiments  must  be  given 
credit  for  producing  an  average  of  266.77  pounds  of  pork, 
or  in  effecting  a  saving  of  1102.42  pounds  of  grain  or 
concentrates.  The  pork  credited  to  each  acre  of  forage 
was  determined  from  the  original  data  by  the  following 
method :  The  total  pounds  of  concentrates  fed  the 
forage  lot  was  divided  by  the  number  of  pounds  of  con- 
centrates required  to  produce  one  pound  of  gain  in  the 
dry  lot.  This  gave  the  number  of  pounds  of  pork  which 
would  have  been  produced  in  dry-lot  feeding  from  the 
concentrates  actually  fed  in  the  forage  lot.  Then  by 
subtracting  from  the  total  gains  made  on  forage  the 
calculated  gains  which  would  have  been  made  in  the  dry 
lot  from  the  same  concentrates,  we  get  the  gains  which 
must  be  credited  the  forage  eaten.  In  other  words,  from 
the  same  quantity  of  concentrates,  pigs  fed  on  one  acre 
of  forage  would  have  produced  266.77  pounds  more  pork 
than  those  fed  in  the  dry  lot.  The  concentrates  saved 
by  an  acre  of  forage  was  calculated  by  multiplying  the 
number  of  pounds  of  pork  credited  to  each  acre  of  forage 
by  the  pounds  of  feed  required  to  produce  one  pound  of 
gain  in  the  dry  lot.  To  produce  a  gain  of  266.77  pounds 
in  the  dry  lot,  there  would  be  required,  according  to  these 
figures,  1102.42  pounds  of  concentrates. 

As  a  means  of  reducing  the  cost  of  producing  gains  in 
growing  pigs  during  the  summer,  therefore,  the  average 
acre  of  the  above  forage  crops  had  values  as  shown  in  the 
following  table : 


Feeding  and  Care  of  Pigs 


145 


TABLE  XXXIV.  —  AVERAGE  VALUE  OF    AN  ACRE  OF  FORAGE 
IN    REDUCING    COST  OF  GAINS 


When  1  pound  of  pork  was 
worth. 

W 
$13.34 

§i 
$16.01 

7t 
$18.67 

8* 
$21.34 

9* 
$24.00 

When  1  pound  of  concen- 
trates cost  • 

l* 

$11.02 

1** 

$13.77 

11* 
$16.53 

1!* 

$19.28 

2* 

$22.04 

When  1  pound  of  pork  was 
worth  

10* 

$26.67 

11* 
$29.34 

13* 

$34.68 

15* 

$40.01 

16* 

$42.68 

When    1    pound    of    concen- 

2i^ 
$24.79 

21* 

$27.55 

3i 
$33.06 

31* 

$38.57 

4^ 
$44.08 

The  above  table  illustrates  the  usual  method  of  express- 
ing the  money  value  of  an  acre  of  forage.  It  should  be 
clearly  understood,  however,  that  these  values  are  de- 
termined by  the  saving  in  the  cost  of  producing  the  gains 
solely,  and  do  not  include  a  valuation  of  the  important 
benefits  derived  from  the  faster  gains  and  earlier  market 
finish,  as  well  as  other  advantages.  It  may  be  profitable 
to  grow  forage  crops  even  though  the  rent  of  the  land  and 
the  cost  of  growing  the  crop  are  greater  than  the  returns 
gotten  when  expressed  by  the  above  method  of  valuation. 

It  should  also  be  pointed  out  in  this  connection  that 
the  effect  of  limiting  the  grain  feed  to  pigs  on  forage  at 
the  point  where  only  fair  gains  are  made,  or  so  as  to  secure 
the  same  gains  on  forage  as  are  made  in  the  dry  lot,  is  to 
increase  the  value  of  the  crops  when  estimated  by  this 
method.  For  example,  if  two  lots  of  pigs,  one  in  the  dry 
lot  and  one  on  forage,  are  fed  the  amounts  of  grain  which 
will  insure  the  same  average  rate  of  gain  in  both  lots,  the 
showing  of  the  forage  crop  would  be  much  better  than 
if  both  lots  had  been  full  fed  for  maximum  gains.  The 
average  results  shown  in  Table  XXXIII  are  less  favorable 


146 


Pork  Production 


to  the  forage  crops,  therefore,  than  would  be  the  case  with 
this  common  method  of  feeding. 

With  the  method  of  full  feeding,  the  benefits  of  the 
forage  crop  are  largely  derived  from  the  faster  gains, 
while  with  limited  feeding  on  forage  the  benefits  from 
the  crop  are  chiefly  due  to  the  saving  effected  in  the  grain 
required  to  produce  a  unit  of  gain. 

Feeding  skim-milk  on  forage. 

An  exception  is  to  be  made  to  the  usual  results  of  dry 
lot  versus  pasture  feeding  when  skim-milk  or  buttermilk 
is  used  as  the  nitrogenous  supplement.  These  supple- 
ments are  so  watery  and  so  completely  balance  the  de- 
ficiencies of  grain,  that  there  appears  to  be  no  benefit 
in  faster  or  cheaper  gains  by  allowing  the  pigs  access  to 
a  succulent  forage  crop.  The  addition  of  a  bulky  forage 
to  a  ration  of  grain  and  milk  would  appear,  in  fact,  to  be 
detrimental.  This  is  shown  by  the  results  of  experi- 
ments made  by  Linfield  at  the  Utah  Experiment  Station.1 
The  average  of  two  tests  made  in  different  years  is  shown 
in  the  following  table : 

TABLE  XXXV.  —  SKIM-MILK  ON  PASTURE  VERSUS  SKIM-MILK 
IN  THE  DRY  LOT 


RATIONS 

AVERAGE 
DAILY  GAIN 

PER   PlQ 

GRAIN  AND  MILK 
TO  PRODUCE  100  LB. 
GAIN 

Grain 

Milk 

Dry  lot      .     . 

Mixed  pasture 
and  alfalfa  . 

Grain  -f-  skim-milk 
or  buttermilk 
Grain  -f-  skim-milk 
or  buttermilk 

Ib. 

1.25 

1.18 

253 

284 

900 
832 

1  Bull.  70. 


Feeding  and  Care  of  Pigs 


147 


Corn  alone  versus  corn  and  forage. 

In  all  of  the  experiments  summarized  in  Table  XXXIII, 
the  pigs  in  the  dry  lots  were  fed  balanced  rations.  If  corn 
alone  had  been  given  in  both  the  forage  and  dry  lots,  the 
value  of  the  forage  in  each  case  would  have  been  greatly 
increased.  To  illustrate  the  high  valuation  of  the  forage 
crop  when  calculated  on  the  basis  of  the  cost  of  producing 
gains  with  corn  alone  in  the  dry  lot,  the  few  available 
experimental  results  are  summarized  and  presented  in 
the  following  table.1  The  value  of  these  forage  crops  as 
sources  of  protein  and  mineral  matter,  or  as  means  of 
balancing  a  ration  of  corn  alone,  is,  also,  strikingly  shown 
by  these  results. 

TABLE  XXXVI.  —  SUMMARY  :   CORN  ALONE  VERSUS  CORN 
AND  FORAGE  (Av.  3  Exps.) 


TOTAL, 

NUM- 
BER 
PIGS 

AVERAGE 
NUMBER 
PIGS 
GRAZED 
PER  ACRE 

AVERAGE 
LENGTH 
OF  TEST 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 

AVERAGE 
AMOUNT 
CORN  RE- 
QUIRED 
TO  PRO- 
DUCE  100 
LB.  GAIN 

AVERAGE 
AMOUNT 
CORN 
SAVED  BY 
1  ACRE 
FORAGE 

AVERAGE 
AMOUNT 
PORK  AC- 
CREDITED 
1  ACRE 
FORAGE 

days 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Dry  lot 

14 



68 

.59 

699.0 

— 

— 

Forage 

17 

18 

68 

1.25 

359.1 

3738.18 

534.79 

Although  the  experimental  work  presented  in  this 
table  is  too  meager  to  make  generalizations  possible,  and 
although  the  poor  returns  from  corn  alone  are  extreme, 
the  results  are  nevertheless  suggestive.  As  would  be 
expected,  the  value  of  the  forage  crops  in  these  experi- 
ments was  much  greater  than  in  those  in  which  balanced 

1  Kans.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  192 ;  Ohio  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  243 ;  Ala. 
Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  154. 


148  Pork  Production 

rations  were  fed  in  the  dry  lot.  The  amount  of  pork 
accredited  each  acre  of  forage  here  was  almost  exactly 
double  that  shown  in  Table  XXXIII.  The  difference 
in  the  saving  of  grain  effected  was  even  greater.  When 
corn  alone  was  fed,  an  acre  of  forage  saved  3738  pounds 
of  grain,  while  when  corn  and  a  nitrogenous  supplement 
were  given,  an  acre  of  forage  saved  1102  pounds  of  feed. 
The  pigs  in  these  experiments,  like  those  in  the  previous 
tests,  were  of  spring  farrow  and  full  fed  during  the  periods 
of  the  tests. 

That  the  usual  forage  crops  supply  considerable  quan- 
tities of  food  materials  which  are  lacking  in  corn  is  also 
shown  by  the  summarized  results  in  Table  XXXVI.  The 
pigs  obtaining  forage  in  these  experiments  gained  more 
than  twice  as  fast  as  did  those  receiving  corn  alone  in  the 
dry  lot,  and  the  amount  of  corn  fed  for  each  100  pounds' 
gain  was  practically  one-half.  Although  most  forage 
crops  do  not  supply  sufficient  protein  to  balance  straight 
corn  for  pigs,  they  do  furnish  sufficient  materially  to 
reduce  the  proportion  of  purchased  supplements  neces- 
sary for  productive  rations. 

Summary  of  benefits  from  growing  forage  crops. 

Considering  the  teachings  of  practical  experience  as 
well  as  the  results  of  experimental  studies,  the  following 
advantages  for  forage  crops  may  be  enumerated : 

1 .  Pigs  on  forage  make  more  rapid  gains  than  do  those 
confined  to  the  dry  lot,  other  conditions  being  the  same. 
It  has  also  been  observed  that  forage-fed  pigs  are  capable 
of  sustaining  a  rapid  rate  of  gain  for  a  longer  period  of 
time.  With  balanced  rations  and  full  feeding,  the  average 
rate  of  gain,  as  shown  by  the  experimental  results  in  Table 
XXXIII,  was  increased  37  per  cent.  With  corn  alone  and 


Feeding  and  Care  of  Pigs  149 

full  feeding,  the  forage  increased  the  rate  of  gain,  as  shown 
in  Table  XXXVI,  more  than  111  per  cent.  The  tonic 
effects  of  the  succulence,  the  laxative  properties  of  the 
green  feed,  and  the  variety  of  proteins  and  mineral  ele- 
ments supplied  seem  to  be  responsible  for  a  state  of 
health  and  thrift  which  insures  greater  capacity  for  the 
digestion  and  assimilation  of  food.  It  is  probable,  also, 
that  the  greater  freedom  and  more  exercise,  and  the  more 
healthful  conditions  generally,  contribute  materially  to 
this  increased  vigor. 

When  feeding  for  the  quickest  development  and  the 
earliest  market,  a  ration  that  will  stimulate  rapid  gains 
is  of  the  greatest  importance.  An  extra  gain  of  \  pound 
daily  would  ordinarily  mean  a  saving  of  more  than  two 
months'  time  in  the  production  of  a  225-pound  shote. 
(See  page  218.)  In  the  development  of  young  boars 
and  gilts,  the  breeder  with  forage  crops  may  secure  rapid 
gains  without  the  dangers  of  forcing  which  would  be 
necessary  in  dry-lot  feeding. 

2.  Pigs  which  have  been  fed  on  forage  crops  during 
the  summer  do  better  when  placed  in  the  dry  lot  than 
those  which  have  not  had  the  advantage  of  green  feeds. 
The  beneficial  effects  of  the  forage  crops,  in  other  words, 
are  not  confined  to  the  forage-feeding  period  alone,  but 
are  noticeably  maintained  during  the  succeeding  weeks 
of   dry-lot   feeding.     This   is   another   reason   why   the 
figures  given  in  Table  XXXIV  do  not  represent  the  full 
value  of  these  crops.     This  desirable  residual  effect  is 
the  result,  no  doubt,  of  the  more  vigorous  state  of  health 
brought  about  by  the  forage  conditions  and  to  the  larger 
capacity  resulting  from  the  consumption  of  the  bulky 
succulent  feeds. 

3.  When  corn,  or  other  grain,  is  very  high   or  un- 


150  Pork  Production 

obtainable,  a  succession  of  forage  crops  during  the  summer 
makes  it  possible,  with  the  minimum  of  grain,  to  maintain 
thrift  and  fair  gains  until  the  next  crop  is  harvested. 
Without  these  crops,  the  farmer  is  frequently  forced  to 
the  necessity  of  sacrificing  his  pig  crop  by  marketing 
them  at  very  immature  weights,  or  of  carrying  them 
through  under  conditions  injurious  to  health  and  fatal 
to  profits.  The  value  of  an  acre  of  good  forage  in  such 
a  situation  as  this,  which  is  not  uncommon,  is  very  much 
greater  than  that  shown  by  the  usual  method  of  calcula- 
tion. 

4.  Forage  crops  reduce  the  amount  of  grain  required 
to  produce  100  pounds  of  gain.     As  indicated  by  the  aver- 
age of  the  experimental  results  shown  in  Table  XXXIII, 
one  may  expect,  even  when  the  pigs  on  forage  are  full  fed 
and  those  in  the  dry  lot  are  given  balanced  rations,  a 
saving  of  15  per  cent,  approximately,  in  the  amount  of 
grain  required  to  produce  a  given  amount  of  pork.     When 
corn  alone  was  full  fed  in  both  forage  and  dry  lots,  the 
saving  effected,  as  shown  in  Table  XXXVI,  was  more  than 
48  per  cent.     With  good  forage  crops,  this  saving  alone 
is  usually  sufficient  to  pay  all  the  costs  of  providing  the 
crops.     Under   given   conditions,   the   higher   the   price 
of  grain  the  more  important  does  this  saving  become. 
With  higher  prices  for  pork  and  the  increased  use  of  corn 
and  other  grains  for  human  consumption,  any  method  of 
pork  production  which  will  save  grain  becomes  increas- 
ingly important. 

5.  Another  very  inportant  advantage  resulting  from 
the  growing  of  forage  crops,  especially  in  the  corn-belt, 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  a  smaller  quantity  of  commercial 
protein  feeds  need  be  purchased  in  order  to  insure  balanced 
rations  for  the  growing  pigs.     This  is  because  these  crops, 


PLATE  IV.  —  Above,  A  visible  demonstration  of  the  deficiencies 
of  corn  alone  for  growing  and  fattening  pigs ;  below,  A  big  smooth 
gilt  with  only  two  pairs  of  good  teats,  an  expensive  luxury. 


Feeding  and  Care  of  Pigs  151 

especially  the  legumes  and  Dwarf  Essex  rape,  contain 
liberal  amounts  of  protein  and  mineral  matter.  The  new 
growth  of  the  ordinary  cereal  crops  like  oats,  rye,  and 
barley  are  very  much  richer  in  these  growing  constituents, 
also,  than  the  same  crops  at  maturity.  Provision  for 
such  crops,  consequently,  means  a  smaller  cash  outlay 
for  such  feeds  as  tankage,  meat-meal,  shorts,  middlings, 
or  oil-meal,  and  the  more  exclusive  and  larger  use  of  corn 
or  other  home-grown  grains.  The  hog-man  is,  therefore, 
made  more  independent  of  outside  sources  of  feed  supply. 

6.  Access  to  forage  crops  insures  that  the  droppings 
will  be  left  where  the  land  is  certain  to  receive  the  full 
benefits  from  the  fertility  contained.     Contrasted  with 
the  results  of  dry-lot  feeding,  where  the  droppings  are 
allowed  to  accumulate  and  waste  away  in  the  barnyard, 
and  to  become  a  source  of  filth,  infection,  and  disease, 
this  system  effects  a  large  and  an  increasingly  important 
saving.     More  than  85  per  cent l  of  the  fertility  of  the 
feed  eaten  by  a  fattening  pig  is  recovered  in  the  manure. 
Henry  and  Morrison  2  have  calculated  that  the  fertility 
value  of  the  manure  produced  by  a  1000  pounds  of  pigs 
in  one  year  has  a  value  exceeding  $38,  when  the  nitrogen 
is  valued  at  18  cents,  phosphoric  acid  at  4.5  cents,  and 
potash  at  5  cents  a  pound.     According  to  these  figures, 
the  actual  fertility  value  of  the  droppings  produced  by 
an  average  pig  during  the  summer  would  be  about  $2. 
Feeding  pigs  on  forage  is  a  sure  and  certain  method  of 
increasing  rapidly  the  fertility  of  the  land  on  which  they 
graze. 

7.  Finally,  forage  crops  mean  improved  sanitary  con- 
ditions for  the  pigs.     If  for  no  other  reason,  all  so-called 

1  Warington :    "  Chemistry  of  the  Farm,"  page  214. 

2  "  Feeds  and  Feeding,"  page  279. 


152  Pork  Production 

permanent  hog-lots  should  be  plowed  up  frequently  and 
sown  to  crops.  Not  only  will  these  lots  be  made  to  yield 
food,  but  the  complete  aeration  of  the  soil  and  the  action 
of  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  will  insure  the  death  of 
parasites  and  disease  germs  more  effectively  and  at  less 
cost  than  can  be  accomplished  by  any  other  known 
method.  Pigs  on  forage  crops  in  contact  with  clean 
earth  are  more  thrifty  and  vigorous  than  those  confined 
to  dry  lots.  The  fundamental  reason  why  pigs  fed  on 
forage  display  such  capacity  for  rapid  gains  is  because 
of  this  thrift.  A  condition  of  thrift  in  the  growing  market 
pig  is  also  essential  for  the  production  of  the  best  quality 
of  pork,  especially  firm  bacon.  Without  thrift,  the  pigs 
intended  for  the  breeding  herd  are  lacking  the  first  essential 
for  successful  performance.  The  use  of  forage  crops 
insures  the  conditions  which  encourage  the  development 
of  vigor  and  constitution  and  eliminates  many  of  the 
conditions  responsible  for  unthriftiness  and  disease. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

CHOOSING  A  FORAGE  CROP:    EXPERIMENTAL 
FEEDING   TRIALS 

THERE  is  no  best  single  forage  crop,  or  succession  of 
forage  crops,  for  all  farms  and  all  seasons.  Differences 
in  climate,  rainfall,  and  soil  make  it  obvious  that  a  crop 
well  adapted  to  the  South  or  West  might  prove  an  utter 
failure  in  the  North  or  East.  Normal  variations  in 
temperature  and  rainfall  from  year  to  year  result,  also, 
in  wide  differences  in  the  quality  and  value  of  any  par- 
ticular crop  grown  on  the  same  soil  in  different  years. 
The  value  of  a  crop  in  any  year  is  conditioned  on  the 
favorableness  of  the  season  for  that  particular  crop. 
Furthermore,  differences  in  the  type  or  plan  of  manage- 
ment followed  on  farms  may  require  the  use  of  forage 
crops  on  some  farms  which  would  not  be  the  most  profit- 
able when  other  systems  of  management  are  followed.  For 
these  reasons,  the  selection  of  forage  crops  is  first  a  ques- 
tion of  location  and  type  of  farming. 

Essentials  of  an  ideal  forage. 

In  order  that  a  forage  crop  may  be  the  most  valuable 
for  a  given  farm,  it  should  possess  as  many  desirable 
individual  characteristics  as  possible.  Evvard 1  of  the 
Iowa  Experiment  Station  has  well  summarized  these 
characteristics  by  naming  the  following  as  the  essentials 

*  Bull.  136. 
153 


154  Pork  Production 

of  an  ideal  forage  for  hogs:  "(1)  adaptability  to  local 
soil  and  climate;  (2)  palatability ;  (3)  heavy  yield  of 
digestible  matter  which  is  comparatively  high  in  protein 
and  suitable  growing  ash ;  (4)  narrow  nutritive  ratio ; 
i.e.  the  relation  of  digestible  protein  to  digestible  carbo- 
hydrate equivalent  should  not  be  wider  than  1:5,  and 
better  still  if  as  narrow  as  1:2;  (5)  succulence ; 
(6)  afford  pasture  for  a  long  grazing  season;  (7)  ability 
to  endure  tramping  and  grazing;  (8)  permanency; 
(9)  reasonable  cost  and  ease  of  seeding;  (10)  capability 
of  furnishing  quick  pasturage  any  time  during  the  growing 
season;  (11)  leguminous  characteristics." 

MEDIUM   RED   CLOVER 

Common  red  clover  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  and 
widely  used  forage  crops  for  hogs.  In  the  corn-belt 
especially  this  crop  is  a  fixture  in  the  rotations  practiced 
on  the  best  farms.  Being  a' legume  it  not  only  improves 
the  fertility  of  the  soil  by  its  nitrogen-gathering  property, 
but  its  abundant  supply  of  protein  and  lime  makes  it 
particularly  valuable  as  a  forage  crop  for  young  pigs. 
Its  richness  in  muscle  and  bone-building  foods  insures 
better  results  with  straight  corn  feeding  than  can  be 
obtained,  as  a  rule,  from  the  non-legumes.  As  an  ally 
to  corn  in  pork  production  in  the  corn-belt,  clover  is 
without  a  peer.  When  carefully  handled,  red  clover  will 
supply  grazing  in  a  favorable  season  from  June  to  No- 
vember. 

One  of  the  disadvantages  of  red  clover  as  a  forage  crop 
is  that  it  tends  to  become  coarse  and  woody  rather  early 
in  the  summer,  especially  in  the  second  year  and  in  a  dry 
season.  It  does  not  stand  drought  as  successfully  as 


Choosing  a  Forage  Crop  155 

alfalfa  or  rape.  For  this  reason,  the  supply  of  succulence 
is  not  uniformly  distributed  throughout  the  summer. 
Clover  frequently  winter-kills  and  is  quite  sensitive  to 
over-stocking.  On  some  soils  it  is  difficult  to  secure  a 
"catch,"  and  being  a  biennial  it  requires  seeding  every 
two  years.  The  wide  adaptability  of  red  clover,  however, 
the  important  position  which  it  occupies  in  successful 
farming  generally,  and  its  feeding  qualities,  make  it  one 
of  the  most  popular  of  forage  crops. 

More  specific  information  relative  to  the  value  of  this 
crop  in  comparison  with  other  forages  is  to  be  found  by 
a  study  of  the  results  of  feeding  trials  conducted  at  the 
experiment  stations.  The  most  important  recent  studies 
are  summarized  and  reported  in  the  following  pages. 

Clover  versus  alfalfa. 

These  two  premier  forages  have  been  compared  in  five 
recent  experimental  feeding  tests  conducted  at  three 
different  corn-belt  stations.  In  each  trial  the  pigs  used 
were  of  spring  farrow  and  the  experiments  began  early 
in  the  summer,  covering  an  average  period  of  135  days. 
Practically  full  corn  rations  were  fed  in  all  except  one 
trial  in  which  three-fourths  of  a  full  ration  was  given. 
In  all  but  one  of  the  experiments,  a  small  proportion  of 
tankage  was  fed  to  supplement  the  corn.  The  results 
are  summarized  and  shown  in  Table  XXXVII. 

Although  the  pigs  on  clover  made  a  shade  faster  gains, 
those  on  alfalfa  gained  the  most  from  a  unit  of  grain  fed. 
Also,  the  alfalfa  lots  yielded  the  heavier  cuttings  of  hay. 
When  alfalfa  is  available,  feeders  usually  prefer  it  to 
clover  not  only  because  of  the  results  here  shown,  but  also 
because  it  furnishes  a  more  uniform  and  constant  supply 
of  forage  throughout  the  summer. 


156 


Pork  Production 


TABLE  XXXVII.  —  SUMMARY  :  CLOVER  VERSUS  ALFALFA 
(Av.  5  Exps.)  l 


FORAGE 

AVERAGE 
NUMBER  PIGS 
PER  ACRE 

AVERAGE 
LENGTH  OF 

TESTS 

AVERAGE 
DAILY  GAIN 
PER  PIG 

CONCENTRATES 
EATEN  FOR  EACH 
100  LB.  GAIN  2 

Clover    . 

16 

days 

135 

Ib. 
1.175 

Ib. 
350 

Alfalfa    . 

16 

135 

1.154 

343 

Clover  versus  rape. 

The  relative  merits  of  these  two  crops  have  been  tested  in 
six  separate  feeding  experiments,  the  summarized  results 
of  which  appear  in  Table  XXXVIII.  In  each  trial  the 
pigs  on  clover  were  fed  the  same  grain  rations  as  were 
those  on  rape.  Pigs  of  spring  farrow  were  employed  and, 
except  in  the  Wisconsin  trials,  were  confined  to  measured 
areas  of  forage.  The  different  experiments  covered 
periods  ranging  from  60  to  141  days. 

TABLE  XXXVIII.  —  SUMMARY  :  CLOVER  VERSUS  RAPE 
(Av.  6  Exps.)  3 


FORAGE 

AVERAGE 
NUMBER 
PIGS  PER 
ACRE 

AVERAGE 
LENGTH 
OF  TESTS 

AVERAGE 
DAILY  GAIN 
PER  PIG 

CONCENTRATES 
EATEN  FOR  EACH 
100  LB.  GAIN 

Clover  .     .     . 
Rape     .     .     . 

18f 

19 

days 

100 
100 

Ib. 

1.122 
1.071 

Ib. 
361 
345 

Exp.    Sta.    Bull.    136;    Ind.   Exp.    Sta.,    unpublished 
data;    111.  Exp.  Sta.,  unpublished  data. 

2  Average  amount  of  hay  cut  from  each  acre  —  alfalfa,  3238 
Ib. ;   clover,  1215  Ib. 

3  Iowa  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  136;    111.  Exp.  Sta.,  unpublished  data; 
Wis.  Exp.  Sta.,  16th  and  17th  An.  Rpts. ;  Ind.  Exp.  Sta.,  unpub- 
lished data. 


CJwosing  a  Forage  Crop  157 

In  four  of  the  experiments  out  of  the  six  here  sum- 
marized, the  pigs  on  clover  made  the  faster  gains,  while 
in  the  other  two  the  rape-fed  pigs  gained  faster.  In 
each  of  the  experiments,  on  the  other  hand,  the  pigs  on 
rape  required  less  concentrated  feed  to  produce  a  unit 
of  gain  than  did  those  on  clover.  Although  rape  is  not 
a  legume  and  does  not  improve  the  soil  in  nitrogen-content, 
it  is  richer  than  clover  in  protein.  In  some  of  these 
experiments  a  small  cutting  of  hay  was  taken  from  the 
clover  lots.  The  carrying  capacity  of  these  crops  appears 
to  be  about  the  same,  both  being  very  large  when  grown 
on  rich  soil  and  good  stands  are  obtained. 

At  the  Missouri  Experiment  Station,1  Mumford  and 
Weaver,  in  tests  made  of  clover  in  1908  and  1910,  pastured 
an  average  of  eleven  pigs  to  the  acre  for  133  days.  The 
pigs  were  fed  straight  corn  in  quantities  to  secure  a  uniform 
rate  of  gain  of  J  pound  daily.  With  this  method  of  feed- 
ing, 100  pounds  of  gain  were  secured  from  an  average  of 
only  295  pounds  of  corn. 

OTHER   CLOVERS 

Because  of  its  good  yielding  powers  and  fine  quality 
of  stems,  alsike  clover  is  probably  the  equal  of  medium 
red  clover  as  a  forage  crop.  The  fact  that  it  does  well  on 
acid  soils  too  wet  for  ordinary  clover  is  causing  it  to  be 
more  generally  grown  in  the  corn-belt.  Mammoth 
clover  is  not  as  highly  regarded,  as  a  rule,  as  medium 
red,  chiefly  because  of  the  rank  coarse  quality  as  a  forage. 
It  is  a  heavy  yielder,  however,  and  does  well  on  thin  sandy 
soil.  White  clover  is  a  persistent-growing  perennial 
which  greatly  adds  to  the  value  of  permanent  pastures 

.  110. 


158  Pork  Production 

of  both  the  North  and  the  South.  In  every  section  of 
the  country,  some  variety  of  clover  is  grown  successfully 
for  forage  purposes.  Crimson  clover  is  an  annual  possess- 
ing wide  adaptations,  particularly  suited  to  the  South 
Atlantic  states.  It  provides  valuable  forage  for  hogs 
during  the  winter.  Varieties  of  Bur  clovers  are  success- 
fully grown  and  used  as  forage  crops  for  pigs  in  the  South 
and  West.  They  are  considered  valuable  supplements 
in  Bermuda  pasture.  Lespedeza,  or  Japan  clover,  is  one 
of  the  most  valuable  legumes  of  the  South.  It  is  an 
annual,  but  reseeds  itself  every  year.  It  does  especially 
well  on  poor  sandy  soils  and  should  be  of  large  value  as 
a  forage  for  pigs,  either  as  a  part  of  permanent  pastures 
or  as  a  specially  grown  crop. 

Investigations  by  Evvard  and  Kennedy  of  the  Iowa 
Station  l  would  indicate  that  sweet  clover,  especially  the 
first  year's  growth,  has  considerable  value  as  a  forage 
for  pigs.  When  fed  a  ration  of  ear  corn,  with  10  per 
cent  meat-meal  during  the  last  57  days  of  the  period, 
twenty-two  38-pound  pigs  were  pastured  on  an  acre  of 
sweet  clover  from  June  22  to  November  10.  The  good 
results  obtained  are  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  pigs  made 
an  average  daily  gain  of  1.02  pounds  at  a  cost  of  3.38 
pounds  of  grain  feed.  The  results  secured  from  the  same 
plot  by  pasturing  the  second  year's  growth  the  succeeding 
year,  however,  were  very  much  less  favorable.  This 
year  the  pigs  made  an  average  gain  of  only  .53  pound 
daily,  while  other  pigs  in  the  same  experiment  on  rape 
and  alfalfa  gained,  with  the  same  grain  rations,  more 
than  one  pound  daily.  The  poor  results  from  the  second 
crop  were  attributed  to  the  extremely  coarse  woody 
nature  of  the  growth.  (See  Table  XL,  page  161.) 
i  Bull.  136. 


Choosing  a  Forage  Crop  159 

ALFALFA 

Alfalfa  is  one  of  the  most  important  swine  forages. 
When  of  good  stand,  it  combines  the  merits  of  unusual 
palatability  and  richness  in  protein  and  mineral  matter 
with  heavy  yielding  powers,  permanency,  the  ability  to 
furnish  a  uniform  supply  of  forage  through  a  long  grow- 
ing season,  and  exceptional  ability  to  withstand  the 
effects  of  droughts.  It  is  a  deep-rooted  perennial  and 
does  best  when  the  water-level  is  not  too  close  to  the 
surface. 

Alfalfa,  however,  is  not  without  its  faults  as  a  forage 
crop  on  every  farm.  Because  it  is  such  a  valuable  peren- 
nial, it  does  not  fit  in  with  the  usual  crop-rotating  systems 
as  does  clover.  Furthermore,  alfalfa  is  not  an  easy  crop 
to  grow  successfully  in  many  sections.  Much  time  and 
considerable  expense  are  often  the  necessary  preliminaries 
to  a  good  stand.  If  stocked  too  heavily,  there  is  great 
danger  that  the  young  shoots  will  be  eaten  and  the  crowns 
permanently  injured.  The  safest  and  perhaps  the  most 
profitable  procedure  to  follow  is  never  to  pasture  so 
heavily  that  at  least  one  good  cutting  is  not  taken  for  hay. 
Also,  close  cropping  in  the  fall  makes  it  very  susceptible 
to  winter-killing.  The  value  of  alfalfa  as  a  permanent 
hay  and  forage  crop  is  so  great,  however,  that  the  rules  for 
its  successful  growth  are  being  studied  more  carefully 
and  its  culture  widely  extended. 

Alfalfa  versus  rape. 

Four  experiment  stations  have  studied  more  or  less 
extensively  the  relative  merits  of  alfalfa  and  rape  as 
forages  for  pigs.  In  all,  ten  feeding  experiments  have 
been  made,  the  summarized  results  of  which  are  given 


160 


Pork  Production 


in  Table  XXXIX.  These  trials  covered  periods  of  80  days 
for  the  shortest  and  190  days  for  the  longest  period. 
Three-fourths  to  full  grain  rations  were  fed,  consisting 
of  either  corn  alone  or  corn  supplemented  with  a  small 
proportion  of  tankage. 

TABLE  XXXIX.  —  SUMMARY  :   ALFALFA  VERSUS  RAPE 

(Av.  10  Exps.)  i 


FORAGE 

AVERAGE 
NUMBER  PIGS 
PER  ACRE 

AVERAGE 
LENGTH  OF 
TESTS 

AVERAGE 
DAILY  GAIN 
PER  PIG 

CONCENTRATES 
EATEN  FOR  EACH 
100  LB.  GAIN 

Alfalfa    .' 

22 

days 

128 

Ib. 

1.156 

Ib. 

348 

Rape  .     . 

19 

123 

1.102 

343 

It  would  appear  from  these  average  results  that  alfalfa 
is  a  somewhat  better  forage  crop  than  rape.  Although 
the  pigs  on  rape  required  less  grain  for  a  unit  of  gain, 
those  on  alfalfa  made  slightly  faster  gains.  A  small 
but  important  difference  in  favor  of  the  alfalfa  is  also 
shown  by  the  larger  number  of  pigs  carried  on  a  given 
area  of  forage.  In  five  of  the  experiments,  the  alfalfa  lots 
yielded  an  average  of  3680  pounds  of  cured  hay  to  the  acre. 

At  the  Missouri  Experiment  Station,2  an  average  of 
10.3  pigs,  weighing  60  to  90  pounds  at  the  beginning  of 
the  experiment,  were  pastured  163  days  on  an  acre  of 
alfalfa.  The  amount  of  corn  required  to  produce  100 
pounds  of  gain  was  307,  the  pigs  being  fed  the  quantity 
of  corn  which  would  maintain  a  uniform  rate  of  gain  of 
f  pound  daily.  Assuming,  as  did  the  authors  of  this 

1  Kans.  Exp.  Sta.  Bulls.  124  and  192 ;  Iowa  Exp.  Sta.,  Eward, 
Am.  Society  Animal  Pro.,  1913 ;  111.  Exp.  Sta.,  unpublished  data ; 
Ind.  Exp.  Sta.,  unpublished  data. 

2  Bull.  110. 


Choosing  a  Forage  Crop 


161 


bulletin,  that  5.6  pounds  of  corn  would  have  been  re- 
quired for  each  pound  of  gain  made  in  the  dry  lot,  the 
acre  of  alfalfa  would  have  a  credit  of  592  pounds  of  pork. 
Assuming  that  the  same  pigs  would  have  made  a  pound 
of  gain  from  4j  pounds  of  corn,  the  credit  due  to  an  acre 
of  alfalfa  would  be  416  pounds  of  pork. 

Alfalfa  versus  sweet  clover. 

Forage  experiments  conducted  at  the  Iowa  Station  1 
afford  an  opportunity  of  comparing  alfalfa  with  second- 
year  sweet  clover  and  a  mixture  of  oats,  Canadian  field 
peas,  and  rape.  The  pigs  on  the  alfalfa  and  sweet  clover 
plots  averaged  at  the  beginning  of  the  trial  18 J  pounds 
and  were  started  on  forage  May  19.  The  pigs  on  the 
mixture  were  turned  in  June  13  and  averaged  26  pounds. 
All  lots  were  fed  ear-corn  and  a  very  small  proportion 
of  meat-meal.  Full  grain  rations  were  fed  only  during 
the  last  100  days  of  the  experiment.  The  results  of  this 
trial  are  shown  in  Table  XL. 

TABLE  XL. — ALFALFA  VERSUS  SWEET  CLOVER  (Second  Year) 
VERSUS  MIXTURE  CANADIAN  FIELD  PEAS,  OATS,  AND  RAPE 


FORAGE 

NUMBER 
PIGS  PER 
ACRE 

LENGTH    OP 
TEST 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN  PER 
PIG 

CONCEN- 
TRATES 
EATEN    FOR 
£ACH  100 
LB.  GAIN 

Alfalfa      .     .     . 

17 

days 
180 

76. 
1  04 

Ib. 

345  2 

Sweet      clover      (second 
year)     

20 

150 

53 

376  3 

Canadian  field  peas,  oats, 
and  rape    .... 

24 

160 

1  15 

351 

1  Evvard  and  Kennedy,  Bull.  136. 

2  3838  pounds  of  alfalfa  cut  from  each  acre. 

3  2384  pounds  of  sweet  clover  cut  from  each  acre. 


162  Pork  Production 

The  pigs  on  the  mixture  of  peas,  oats,  and  rape  made 
faster  gains  than  did  those  on  alfalfa  and  a  larger  number 
was  grazed  on  a  given  area.  The  pigs  on  alfalfa,  how- 
ever, made  their  gains  with  the  expenditure  of  less  grain. 
If  the  alfalfa  plot  also  is  credited  with  the  nearly  two  tons 
of  hay  cut  to  the  acre,  as  well  as  the  smaller  cost  of 
growing  the  crop,  it  proves  to  be  the  more  profitable.1 
The  results  reported  here  for  second-year  sweet  clover 
would  indicate  that  this  crop  cannot  be  used  profitably 
as  a  forage  for  pigs  when  the  more  standard  crops  are 
available.  Although  the  first  season's  growth  after 
seeding  proved  at  the  same  station  to  be  a  good  forage, 
it  is  such  a  vigorous  grower  that  the  stalks  become  woody 
and  unpalatable  very  early  in  the  second  season.  Good 
results  have  been  reported  for  second-year  sweet  clover, 
however,  when  fall  pigs  are  used  and  they  are  turned  in 
early  enough  in  the  spring  to  keep  down  the  rank  woody 
growth. 

DWARF-ESSEX    RAPE 

Rape  is  a  quick-growing  succulent  annual,  unsurpassed 
by  crops  of  this  class  as  a  forage  for  pigs.  The  plant  is 
unusually  tender  and  succulent  and  is  eaten  with  relish 
and  no  waste.  Although  not  a  legume,  it  ranks  with 
alfalfa  and  the  clovers  as  a  cheap  source  of  protein  and  a 
balancer  of  corn.  Rape  is  a  very  heavy  yielder  and  pos- 
sesses unusual  carrying  capacity.  It  may  be  heavily 
stocked  and  intensively  grazed  for  a  short  period  or  it 
may  be  handled  so  that  it  will  furnish  grazing  until 
freezing.  Planted  in  the  fall,  rape  has  proved  a  valuable 

1  For  rent,  cost  of  seeding,  labor,  alfalfa  cost  $10.75  an  acre ; 
sweet  clover,  $9.20;  and  the  mixture  of  peas,  oats,  and  rape, 
$13.37. 


Choosing  a  Forage  Crop  163 

winter  forage  in  the  South.  Although  rape  does  best 
in  a  cool  moist  season,  it  stands  next  to  alfalfa  in  its 
ability  to  withstand  drought.  It  may  be  planted  so 
as  to  supply  forage  any  time  during  the  season,  al- 
though the  earlier  plantings  yield  heaviest.  With  timely 
rains,  rape  continues  to  renew  itself  throughout  the 
summer  if  not  pastured  too  closely.  Alternating  the 
pigs  on  different  lots  insures,  for  this  reason,  the  best 
results. 

Rape  mixes  well  when  sown  with  Canadian  field  peas, 
oats,  or  clover.  It  is  often  seeded  with  oats,  and  will 
come  on  and  furnish  valuable  succulence  after  the  grain 
is  harvested.  If  sown  between  the  corn  rows  at  the  time 
of  last  cultivation,  it  will  insure  better  results  when 
hogging-down  the  corn.  Rape  may  be  sown  broadcast 
or  drilled  in  rows  24  to  30  inches  apart.  The  latter 
method  of  seeding  is  usually  to  be  preferred  as  it  may 
be  cultivated,  it  will  yield  heavier,  and  the  pigs  will  de- 
stroy less  by  tramping.  Pigs  recently  weaned  should  be 
turned  on  when  the  plants  are  14  to  16  inches  high ;  with 
fall  pigs,  the  growth  should  be,  preferably,  16  to  18  inches 
high. 

Every  year  a  few  feeders  report  that  their  pigs  refuse 
to  eat  rape,  but  at  none  of  the  stations  of  the  country 
where  experimental  studies  have  been  made  of  this  forage 
have  any  results  been  obtained  which  would  tend  to 
support  such  a  conclusion.  Its  tendency  to  cause  sores 
and  blisters  on  thin-skinned  pigs  is  not  considered  serious. 
The  trouble  may  be  largely  avoided  by  keeping  the  pigs 
out  while  rain  or  dew  is  on  the  plants.  Pigs  badly 
blistered  have  been  successfully  treated  by  washing  or 
spraying  with  a  disinfectant;  then  greasing  with  lard  or 
vaseline, 


164 


Pork  Production 


Early  versus  late  rape  and  other  forages. 

An  experiment  conducted  during  the  summer  of  1909 
at  the  Iowa  Station  *•  tested  the  relative  merits  of  the 
following  forage  crops:  early-sown  rape;  late-sown 
rape;  a  mixture  of  oats,  clover,  and  rape;  a  mixture 
of  Canadian  field  peas,  oats,  and  rape;  and  blue-grass 
and  timothy  pasture.  The  rape  in  both  lots  was  broad- 
casted, the  early  planting  being  seeded  May  4th  and  the 
late  July  5th.  The  mixtures  in  the  other  two  lots  were 
drilled  May  4th.  A  full  ration  of  ear-corn  was  fed  all 
lots,  supplemented  during  the  last  thirty  days  by  the 
addition  of  10  per  cent  of  meat-meal.  The  results  are 
shown  in  Table  XLI. 


TABLE  XLI.  —  EARLY  VERSUS  LATE-SOWN  RAPE  VERSUS  FOR- 
AGE MIXTURES 


CONCEN- 

FOEAGE 

No.  PIGS 
PER  ACRE 

LENGTH 

OF 

PERIOD 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

TRATES 
EATEN  FOR 
EACH  100 
POUNDS 

PORK  CRED- 
ITED 1  ACRE 
OF  FORAGE  l 

GAIN 

Early-sown  rape 

17 

147 

.81 

326 

371 

Late-sown  rape  .     . 

19 

104 

1.36 

371 

195 

Oats,     clover,     and 

rape  2      .     .     .     . 

17 

147 

.91 

318 

458 

Canadian  field  peas, 

oats,  and  rape  .     . 

17 

147 

.85 

339 

419 

Blue-grass  and  tim- 

• 

othy  pasture    .     . 

14 

165 

.72 

393 

28 

*  Bull.  136. 

2  Mixture  of  48  pounds  of  oats,  8  pounds  of  red  clover,  and  2 
pounds  of  rape  sown  to  an  acre. 

8  Figured  on  the  basis  that  4  pounds  of  grain  would  have  been 
required  to  produce  1  pound  of  gain  under  dry  lot  conditions. 


Choosing  a  Forage  Crop  165 

With  those  lots  fed  for  approximately  the  same  length 
of  time,  the  mixture  of  oats,  clover,  and  rape  gave  the 
best  results.  In  this  lot  the  gains  were  fastest,  the 
amount  of  grain  fed  for  each  100  pounds  of  gain  made 
was  least,  and  the  amount  of  pork  credited  to  one  acre 
of  forage  greatest.  Although  the  amount  of  grain  re- 
quired to  produce  100  pounds  of  gain  was  greater  in  the 
early  rape  lot  than  in  the  lot  on  oats,  peas,  and  rape, 
the  gains  were  faster.  As  measured  by  the  amount  of 
pork  or  concentrates  credited  to  each  acre  of  forage,  the 
latter  crop  was  more  profitable.  The  blue-grass  and 
timothy  pasture  gave  returns  very  much  less  favorable 
than  the  other  forages,  due,  no  doubt,  to  the  fact  that 
this  crop  did  not  supply  as  much  protein  to  balance  the 
straight  corn  fed  during  most  of  the  experiment.  The 
value  of  a  late  planting  of  rape  is  well  shown  by  these  re- 
sults. The  more  rapid  daily  gains  in  this  lot  as  compared 
with  the  early  rape  lot  are  probably  to  be  explained  by 
the  larger  size  of  the  pigs  and  also  by  the  fact  that  straight 
corn  was  fed  for  a  shorter  proportion  of  the  time. 

In  the  forage  experiments  at  the  Iowa  Station  in  1911, 
rape  alone  proved  slightly  inferior  to  a  mixture  of  oats,  Ca- 
nadian field  peas,  and  rape.  (See  Table  XLIV,  page  169.) 

Winter  rape. 

That  rape  is  deserving  of  consideration  as  a  winter 
forage  crop  by  the  southern  hog  raiser  was  shown  by 
experiments  conducted  at  the  Alabama  Experiment 
Station  by  Gray,  Summers,  and  Shook.1  Ten  pounds 
of  rape  seed  were  sown  in  drills  18  inches  apart  September 
19.  The  soil  was  very  poor  and  sandy.  Pigs  of  average 
quality,  weighing  45  pounds,  were  turned  in  November  9, 
i  Bull.  168. 


166 


Pork  Production 


when  the  trial  began.  The  experiment  closed  April  5, 
covering  a  period  of  147  days.  The  results  are  shown  in 
Table  XLII. 

TABLE  XLII.  —  WINTER  RAPE  VERSUS  DRY  LOT 


CONCENTRATES 
FED 

NUMBER 
PIGS  AND 
AREA 
GRAZED 

AVERAGE 
DAILY  GAIN 
PER  PIG 

CONCEN- 
TRATES FED 
FOR  EACH 
100  LB.  GAIN 

GRAIN  AND 
PASTURE 
COST  PER  100 
LB.  GAIN.1 

pigs;       a 

Ib. 

Ib. 

2  corn-meal  -f 

Dry  lot 

1  shorts, 

full  feed. 

5; 

.84 

520 

$6.88 

2  corn-meal  + 

Rape 

1  shorts, 

\  full  feed. 

5;     I 

.71 

258 

4.90 

2  corn-meal  -p 

Rape 

1  shorts, 

\  full  feed. 

5;     ! 

.54 

165 

4.13 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  pigs  on  rape  received  only 
one-half  grain  rations  or  less,  the  gains  made  in  the  forage 
lots  were  fairly  good.  The  saving  effected  by  rape  in  the 
amount  of  concentrates  required  for  a  unit  of  gain  was 
such  that  its  value  in  southern  pork  production  would 
seem  assured. 


COMBINATIONS  I 


CANADIAN    FIELD 
RAPE 


PEAS,    OATS,    CLOVER, 


As  a  rule,  a  mixture  of  two  or  more  plants  possessing 
similar  requirements  in  temperature  and  soil  give  a 
heavier  yield  as  a  forage  than  any  one  of  the  crops  grown 


1  Corn  70  cents  a  bushel ;  shorts  at  $30.00  a  ton ;  rape  at  $8.00 
an  acre. 


Choosing  a  Forage  Crop  167 

separately.  Also,  a  more  uniform  supply  of  succulence 
may  be  provided  by  selecting  for  the  combination  crops 
which  make  most  of  their  growth  in  successive  periods 
of  the  summer.  For  these  reasons,  various  mixtures 
of  the  above  crops  are  commonly  planted  and  success- 
fully used  for  forage  purposes. 

In  the  latitude  of  the  northern  corn-belt  and  farther 
north,  the  Canadian  field  pea  is  a  standard  forage  crop 
for  pigs.  It  is  a  rapid-growing  legume,  occupying  the 
same  class  as  the  alfalfa  and  the  clovers  in  its  ability  to 
furnish  protein.  Five  or  six  weeks  after  planting  it  is 
ready  to  use.  It  is  a  decided  cool-weather  crop  and 
does  best  when  planted  as  early  in  the  spring  as  the 
ground  can  be  worked,  and  should  not  be  confused  with 
the  cowpea,  which  is  extensively  grown  in  the  South.  It 
is  particularly  sensitive  to  heat  and  wilts  early  in  a  dry 
hot  summer.  It  should  always  be  grown  with  oats,  or 
some  such  crop,  which  will  support  the  vines ;  otherwise 
considerable  loss  will  result  from  tramping  and  mildew. 
In  the  North  the  pigs  are  sometimes  not  turned  in  until 
the  pods  are  well  filled,  although  the  more  common  prac- 
tice is  to  use  it  chiefly  as  a  green  crop  by  pasturing  it 
after  the  growth  is  about  10  inches  high. 

Forage  mixtures  for  fall  pigs. 

In  the  summer  of  1910,  the  Iowa  Station  1  fed  four  lots 
of  fall  pigs  on  different  forage  combinations.  The  forages 
tested  were  made  up  of  a  mixture  of  oats  and  rape  in 
combination  with  red  clover,  hairy  vetch,  or  Canadian 
field  peas  in  the  first  three  lots,  while  in  the  fourth,  a 
mixture  of  oats  and  clover  was  alternately  grazed  with 
rape. 

i  Bull.  136. 


168 


Pork  Production 


The  crops  were  seeded  April  4  by  drilling  in  the  follow- 
ing proportions  and  quantities  to  the  acre :  Lot  I,  48 
pounds  of  oats,  8  pounds  red  clover,  and  2  pounds  rape ; 
lot  II,  48  pounds  of  oats,  30  pounds  vetch,  and  2  pounds 
rape;  lot  III,  48  pounds  oats,  90  pounds  peas,  and  6 
pounds  rape.  The  mixture  of  oats  and  clover  for  lot  IV 
was  drilled  in  rows  8  inches  apart.  The  rape  was  drilled 
in  rows  24  inches  apart  and  given  three  cultivations. 
The  experiment  began  May  26  and  closed  November  11. 
Each  lot  was  fed  a  grain  ration  of  ear-corn  with  about 
7  per  cent  of  tankage  added.  Full  rations  were  fed 
during  only  the  last  85  days  of  the  trial.  The  results 
are  shown  in  Table  XLIII. 

TABLE  XLIII.  —  A  COMPARISON  OF  CLOVER,  HAIRY  VETCH, 
AND  CANADIAN  FIELD  PEAS  IN  COMBINATION  WITH  OATS 
AND  RAPE  FOR  FALL  PIGS. 


CONCEN- 

FOBAGE 

NUMBER 
PIGS  PER 

LENGTH  OP 

AVERAGE 
DAILY  GAIN 

TRATES 
EATEN  FOR 

ACRE 

TEST 

PER  PIG 

EACH  100 

LB.  GAIN 

days 

16. 

Ib. 

I.    Oats,  clover,  and  rape 

11 

168 

1.22 

445 

II.    Oats,  vetch,  and  rape 

11 

168 

1.21 

447 

III.    Oats,  peas,  and  rape 

11 

168 

1.31 

414 

IV.   Oats  and  clover  al- 

ternated with  rape  .     . 

13 

168 

1.17 

460 

All  the  pigs  were  extremely  heavy  at  the  close  of  the 
experiment.  For  this  reason  the  amount  of  feed  required 
to  produce  100  pounds  of  gain  was  considerably  greater 
than  that  previously  shown  necessary  for  spring  pigs. 
Also,  the  pork  credited  to  each  acre  of  forage  was  less 
than  that  usually  obtained  with  younger  pigs  and  similar 
crops.  Of  these  three  forage  mixtures,  oats,  vetch,  and 


Choosing  a  Forage  Crop 


169 


rape  proved  the  least  profitable.  The  authors  stated 
that  the  vetch  was  of  little  value  in  the  mixture.  It 
came  on  and  made  good  growth  in  July  and  August, 
but  the  pigs  ate  little  of  it.  As  the  result  of  their  observa- 
tions, they  strongly  advise  against  the  use  of  hairy  vetch 
as  a  hog  pasture  in  Iowa.  The  returns  in  lot  IV,  in  which 
oats  and  clover  were  alternated  with  rape,  were  dis- 
appointing. After  the  rape  had  been  well  eaten  down 
early  in  the  season,  the  pigs  were  changed  to  oats  and 
clover.  From  late  July  until  the  end  of  the  season,  the 
pigs  were  on  the  rape  again,  as  the  oats  and  clover  fur- 
nished practically  no  feed  during  this  time. 

Oats  versus  other  forages. 

In  Table  XLIV  are  shown  the  results  of  an  experiment 
at  the  Iowa  Station  1  in  1911.  In  this  test  a  comparison 
was  made  of  a  mixture  of  oats,  Canadian  field  peas,  and 
rape  with  oats  alone,  and  with  rape  alone.  The  pigs 
in  all  three  lots  were  turned  in  June  13.  At  this  date 
the  oats  in  the  oats-alone  lot  were  just  beginning  to  head. 

TABLE  XLIV.  —  A  COMPARISON  OF  OATS  WITH  OTHER  FORAGES 
FOR  SPRING  PIGS 


CONCEN- 

FORAQB 

NUMBER  OF 
PIGS  PER 

ACRE 

LENGTH  OF 
TEST 

AVERAGE 
DAILY  GAIN 
PER  PIG 

TRATES  RE- 
QUIRED  FOR 
EACH  100 

LB.  GAIN 

days 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Oats    

30 

90 

.63 

365 

Rape    . 

43 

160 

1  07 

385 

Oats,  Canadian  field  peas, 

and  rape 

31 

160 

1.16 

370 

Bull.  136. 


170  Pork  Production 

The  experiment  was  continued  for  each  forage  lot  as 
long  as  feed  remained,  the  oats  in  the  oats-alone  lot  being 
exhausted  70  days  earlier  than  the  forages  in  the  other 
two.  The  pigs  averaged  26  pounds  when  the  experi- 
ment began  and  were  given  full  rations  of  ear-corn  with 
about  5  per  cent  of  meat-meal. 

Because  of  the  exceptional  number  of  pigs  carried  on 
an  acre  of  the  rape,  this  forage  proved  to  be  the  most 
profitable.  This  lot  was  pastured  at  the  rate  of  30  pigs 
an  acre  until  September  11,  when  the  number  was  increased 
to  60.  Seven  extra  pigs  were  added  to  the  lot  on  oats, 
peas,  and  rape  for  30  days  in  the  last  part  of  the  experi- 
ment. The  oats  alone  proved  to  be  a  poor  forage  with 
this  method  of  pasturing,  although  the  volunteer  growth 
supplied  considerable  green  feed  during  the  late  summer. 


RYE 

One  of  the  most  valuable  qualities  of  green  rye  as  a 
forage  crop  is  that  it  furnishes  a  supply  of  green  succulent 
material  during  the  seasons  when  the  ordinary  forage 
crops  and  pastures  are  of  little  or  no  value.  The  merit 
of  the  crop  is  its  availability  during  the  fall,  winter,  and 
spring,  rather  than  in  its  large  yielding  or  grazing  capacity. 
The  benefits  to  be  derived  from  a  patch  of  rye  are  per- 
haps expressed  more  largely  in  the  increased  health  and 
thrift  in  the  breeding  herd  and  an  increased  milk-flow 
from  the  sows  with  pigs,  than  in  the  saving  effected  in 
the  cost  of  producing  gains  when  growing  or  fattening 
pigs  for  market.  If  planted  early  in  the  fall,  rye  will 
supply  green  feed,  in  an  open  winter,  until  late  the  next 
spring,  if  carefully  grazed.  If  pastured  lightly  in  the 
spring  and  the  pigs  not  allowed  to  remain  on  it  late,  it 


Choosing  a  Forage  Crop  171 

will  yield  its  normal  harvest  in  grain.  The  pigs  are  often 
allowed  to  remain  on  the  land  and  the  mature  crop  pas- 
tured as  ripe  rye;  or  it  may  be  pastured  heavily  in  the 
spring  and  the  land  early  prepared  and  sown  to  other 
forage  crops.  When  broadcasted  between  the  corn  rows 
in  the  late  summer,  rye  supplies  valuable  succulence 
for  the  shotes  when  "hogging-down"  the  corn,  or  for 
grazing  the  breeding  stock  in  the  late  fall  and  early 
spring.  Because  of  its  very  watery  nature,  green  rye 
causes  rather  extreme  looseness  of  the  bowels,  which, 
with  young  pigs,  frequently  develops  into  scours.  Keep- 
ing the  pigs  out  of  the  rye  when  it  is  wet  and  limiting 
the  time  they  are  allowed  to  graze  will  help  in  prevent- 
ing the  trouble. 

Rye  as  a  winter  forage. 

The  possibilities  in  the  use  of  rye  as  a  winter  forage 
crop  in  those  sections  in  which  the  winters  are  mild  and 
open  are  well  demonstrated  by  experimental  studies  made 
at  the  Kentucky  Station.1  The  results  of  a  trial  conducted 
during  the  winter  of  1910-11  are  shown  in  the  table  on 
the  following  page.  This  experiment  began  November 
11  and  closed  April  8,  covering  a  period  of  147  days. 

The  results  in  this  test,  as  shown  by  the  rate  of  gain 
and  the  grain  required  to  produce  a  given  gain,  would 
indicate  that  rye  may  be  of  considerable  value  as  a  winter 
forage.  Although  young  rye  is  fairly  rich  in  protein,  it 
would  seem  that  some  form  of  protein  supplement,  like 
tankage,  should  be  fed  for  the  most  rapid  or  the  most 
economical  gains.  The  rye  was  covered  with  snow  for  a 
short  part  of  the  time  in  the  winter. 

i  Bull.  175. 


172 


Pork  Production 


TABLE  XLV.  —  WINTER  RYE  VERSUS  DRY  LOT  FEEDING 


FORAGE 

GRAIN  RATIONS  FED 

NUMBER 
PIGS  IN 
EACH  LOT 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT  OF 
PIGS 

AVERAGE 
DAILY  GAIN 
PER  PIG 

CONCEN- 
TRATES RE- 
QUIRED FOR 
EACH   100 
LB.  GAIN 

to. 

376 

Rye 

10  corn-meal  + 
1  tankage. 
Full  feed 

7 

Ib. 
48 

Ib. 

1.13 

Rye 

Corn-meal  alone 
Full  feed 

7 

49 

.85 

480 

Dry  lot 

10  corn-meal  + 
1  tankage. 
Full  feed 

8 

47 

1.03 

399 

"Hogging  down"  ripe  rye. 

The  following  interesting  comparison  was  made  in  an 
experiment  conducted  at  the  Iowa  Station  in  191 1.1  One 
plot  of  rye  was  "hogged  down"  by  turning  in  the  pigs 
when  it  was  ripe  and  the  stalks  beginning  to  crinkle 
down,  which  was  July  7.  In  the  second  lot  a  comparable 
area  of  green  rye  was  grazed  from  September  22  to 
November  21.  The  pigs  in  the  ripe  rye  averaged  69 
pounds  when  turned  in,  while  those  on  the  green  rye 
averaged  36  pounds.  The  results  are  condensed  in 
Table  XLVI. 

The  rye  in  lot  I  was  very  heavy  and  estimated  to 
yield  41  bushels  to  the  acre.  Although  the  rye  grain 
when  properly  supplemented  is  a  good  feed,  the  results 
of  this  test  would  indicate  that  the  practice  of  "hogging 
down"  the  ripened  crop  is  unprofitable.  The  authors 
of  the  experiment  stated  it  would  have  been  much  more 


Bull  136. 


Choosing  a  Forage  Crop 


173 


profitable  to  have  harvested  and  sold  the  rye  on  the 
market  than  to  have  "hogged"  it  down.  No  corn  was 
fed  in  this  lot,  but  enough  meat-meal  was  given  to  insure 
a  balanced  ration  with  the  rye.  The  results  of  trials 
conducted  the  next  summer  at  the  same  station,  when 
corn  was  also  fed  to  the  pigs,  again  showed  the  practice 
to  be  an  unprofitable  one. 

TABLE  XLVI.  —  "HOGGING  DOWN"  RIPE  RYE  VERSUS  GREEN 

RYE 


FORAGE 

CONCENTRATES 
FED 

NUMBER 
OP  PIGS 
PER  ACRE 

LENGTH 
OP  TEST 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN  PER 

PT« 

CENTRATE8 
EATEN  POR 
EACH  100 

LB.  GAIN 

days 

.     lb. 

lb. 

Ripe  rye 

.45  lb.  meat- 

meal    daily 

each  pig 

22 

36 

.269 

169 

(meat  m.) 

Green  rye 

Ear  corn-j- 

TS  meat-meal 

f  full  feed 

35 

60 

.810 

324 

Somewhat  better  results  were  secured  from  "hogging 
down"  ripe  rye  by  the  Missouri  Station  l  as  indicated  in 
the  table  below,  which  shows  the  results  of  five  succes- 
sive years  of  experiment.  The  pigs  were  of  average 
grade  and  weighed  60  to  90  pounds  when  the  trials  began. 
In  addition  to  the  rye,  they  received  a  hand-fed  ration 
composed  of  6  parts  corn  to  1  of  linseed-oil  meal  in  quan- 
tities sufficient  to  maintain  an  approximate  daily  gain 
of  |  pound  for  each  pig. 


1  Bull.  110. 


174  Pork  Production 

TABLE  XLVII.  —  RESULTS  FROM  "HOGGING  DOWN"  RIPE  RYE 


YEAR 

NUMBER 
DATS 
PASTURED 

NUMBER 
PIGS  PER 
ACRE 

TOTAL 
GAIN  PER 
ACRE 

TOTAL  CON- 
CENTRATES 
(Corn  +  Un- 
seed M.)  FED 
PER  ACRE 

CON- 
CENTRATES 
FED  FOR  EACH 
100  LB.  GAIN 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

1908        . 

42 

16 

360 

544 

151 

1909      . 

42 

16 

318 

544 

171 

1910      . 

57 

8 

344 

456 

133 

1911      . 

71 

12 

539 

1988 

368 

1912      . 

36 

8 

179 

288 

160 

Average 

49.6 

12 

348 

764 

196 

BLUE-GRASS :     TIMOTHY 

Although  blue-grass  has  its  largest  use  as  a  pasture  for 
cattle  or  horses  on  the  average  farm,  it  may  be  employed 
profitably  for  the  pigs  during  the  seasons  when  the  usual 
forage  crops  are  not  available.  In  the  corn-belt  especially, 
it  has  proved  of  large  value  as  an  adjunct  to  corn  on  those 
farms  on  which  the  production  of  forage  crops  and  the 
feeding  of  balanced  rations  have  been  given  little  or  no 
consideration.  It  is  particularly  valuable  in  the  spring 
and  fall  as  a  reserve,  or  addition,  to  the  regular  forage 
crops.  It  may  be  grown  on  land  not  suitable  for  the 
production  of  other  forage  crops,  it  is  permanent,  cheap, 
and  will  supply  green  feed  for  a  long  grazing  period.  The 
yield  and  quality  of  blue-grass,  like  that  of  any  other 
forage  crop,  varies  widely  with  the  kind  of  soil  on  which 
it  is  grown,  the  favorableness  of  the  season,  and  the  man- 
agement given  it.  Timothy  has  some  value  as  a  forage 
crop,  but  its  supply  of  protein  is  below  that  furnished  by 
either  blue-grass  or  rye. 


Choosing  a  Forage  Crop 


175 


Blue-grass  and  timothy  versus  clover  and  alfalfa. 

In  Table  XLVIII  are  given  the  results  of  an  experiment 
conducted  at  the  Iowa  Station  l  in  1909  in  which  a  pas- 
ture of  blue-grass  and  timothy  was  compared  with  alfalfa 
in  one  case  and  clover  in  another.  The  pigs  were  of 
spring  farrow  and  weighed  between  33  and  34  pounds 
on  June  4th  when  the  test  began.  In  addition  to  the 
forage,  the  pigs  of  each  lot  were  given  a  full  feed  of  ear- 
corn,  supplemented  during  the  last  39  days  of  the  trial 
by  the  addition  of  10  per  cent  of  meat-meal.  The  experi- 
ment covered  a  period  of  165  days,  practically  the  entire 
time  from  weaning  to  marketing. 


TABLE  XLVIII.  —  BLUE-GRASS  AND  TIMOTHY  VERSUS  CLOVER 
AND  ALFALFA 


FORAGE 

AVERAGE 
NUMBER 
PIGS  PER 
ACRE 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN  PER 
PIG 

CON- 
CENTRATES 
TO  PRODUCE 
100  LB. 
GAIN 

CON- 
CENTRATES 
SAVED  BY 
ONE  ACRE 
FORAGE  2 

PORK  AC- 
CREDITED 
ONE  ACRE 
FORAGE  2 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

#>. 

Ib. 

Blue-grass    and 

timothy    . 

13.9 

.72 

393.32 

111.12 

27.78 

Alfalfa     .     .     . 

13.9 

.99 

367.23 

746.40 

186.60 

Clover     .     .     . 

13.9 

1.07 

251.56 

1195.12 

298.78 

Clover 

13.9 

1.07 

354.55 

1120.52 

280.13 

Considering  that  straight  corn  was  fed  in  all  lots  except 
for  the  last  39  days,  the  gains  made  were  exceptionally 
good.  The  amount  of  pork  credited  to  each  acre  of 
forage  would  undoubtedly  have  been  greater  if  a  small 

1  Bull.  136. 

2  Figured  on  the  basis  that  4  pounds  of  concentrates  would 
have  been  required  for  each  pound  of  gain  in  dry  lot  feeding. 


176 


Pork  Production 


quantity  of  meat-meal  had  been  fed  earlier  in  the  test. 
The  relative  merits  of  the  crops  is  well  shown  by  the 
rates  of  gain  and  the  concentrates  required  to  produce 
100  pounds  of  gain.  The  superiority  of  the  legumes, 
clover  and  alfalfa,  over  the  blue-grass  and  timothy  is  very 
marked.  Clover  gave  slightly  better  results  in  this 
experiment  than  did  alfalfa,  although  the  authors  of  the 
bulletin,  as  the  result  of  other  studies,  rank  it  below 
alfalfa  in  value.  The  uniformity  of  the  results  from  the 
two  lots  on  clover  testifies  to  the  care  exercised  in  mak- 
ing the  different  lots  comparable. 

In  Table  XLIX  are  shown  the  results  secured  from 
feeding  spring  pigs  on  blue-grass  pasture  at  the  Missouri 
Station.1  In  these  tests  enough  of  a  grain  ration  consist- 
ing of  6  parts  corn  and  1  part  linseed-oil  meal  was  fed  to 
secure  a  gain  of  approximately  J  pound  daily. 

TABLE  XLIX.  —  RESULTS    FROM  PASTURING  BLUE-GRASS 


YEAR 

NUMBER 
DAYS 
PASTURED 

AVERAGE 
NUMBER 
PIGS  PER 
ACRE 

TOTAL  GAIN 
PER  ACRE 

TOTAL  CON- 
CENTRATES 
FED  PER 
ACRE 

CONCEN- 
TRATES FED 
FOR  EACH 

100  LB. 

GAIN 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

1908 

144 

14 

1400 

7164 

510 

1909 

144 

12 

1282 

5612 

430 

1910 

200 

12 

2112 

8792 

420 

1911 

196 

11.34 

1985 

9323 

470 

1912  . 

145 

12 

1445 

6070 

440 

Average       .     . 

165 

12 

1645 

7392 

450 

These  pigs  weighed  approximately  200  pounds  on  the 
average  at  the  close  of  the  grazing  seasons.    A  cost  of 


1  Bull.  110. 


Choosing  a  Forage  Crop 


177 


450  pounds  of  grain  for  each  100  pounds  of  gain  may, 
therefore,  be  considered  as  fairly  satisfactory. 

Although  timothy  is  not  a  valuable  forage  crop  for 
pigs,  it  is  sometimes  profitable  to  make  use  of  it  for  this 
purpose.  It  is  very  succulent  and  palatable,  but  low  in 
its  content  of  protein.  It  supplies  considerably  less 
protein  in  proportion  to  its  carbohydrates  than  does 
either  rye  or  blue-grass.  As  shown  by  experiments  con- 
ducted at  the  Iowa  Station  1  in  1906,  the  feeding  of  pigs  on 
timothy  gave  fairly  satisfactory  results  when  compared 
with  dry  lot  feeding.  In  Table  L  are  given  the  averages 
for  four  lots  on  timothy  and  for  comparable  lots  fed  in 
the  dry  yard.  The  pigs  in  both  the  dry  and  forage  lots 
were  fed  balanced  rations. 

TABLE  L.  —  TIMOTHY  VERSUS  DRY  LOT  FEEDING 
(Av.  4  Exps.) 


NUMBER 

AVERAGE 

AVERAGE 

CONCEN- 

PORK 

PIGS 
GRAZED  TO 
1  ACRE 

INITIAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

DAILY 
GAIN  PER 
PIG 

EATEN  FOR 
EACH  100 
LB.  GAIN 

CREDITED 
1  ACRE 
FORAGE 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Dry  lot  .     .     . 

— 

59 

.938 

461 

— 

Timothy      .     . 

11 

57 

1.240 

406 

197 

SORGHUM  —  CANE 

Sorghum  is  used  more  or  less  extensively  as  a  forage 
for  swine  in  the  southern  part  of  the  corn-belt  and  farther 
south  and  in  the  semi-arid  regions  of  the  Southwest.  Its 
chief  merit  is  its  ability  to  furnish  a  heavy  tonnage  of 
succulent  feed  in  a  dry  hot  season.  It  should  be  pas- 

1  Bull.  91. 


178 


Pork  Production 


tured  ordinarily  while  the  plant  is  young  and  tender,  or 
when  one  to  two  feet  tall,  although  it  is  sometimes  allowed 
nearly  to  mature  before  turning  in.  Results  of  feeding 
trials  conducted  at  the  Alabama  Experiment  Station,1 
however,  showed  that  the  latter  method  did  not  give  prof- 
itable returns  for  the  crop.  The  following  tabulated  re- 
sults were  secured  at  the  Missouri  Experiment  Station  2 
when  pastured  early.  The  plants  were  one  to  two  feet 
high  when  the  experiments  began.  The  pigs  were  fed 
balanced  rations  and  were  turned  in  when  weighing 
from  60  to  90  pounds  each. 

« 

TABLE  LI.  —  RESULTS  FROM  PASTURING  SORGHUM 


YEAR 

NUMBER 
DAYS 
PASTURED 

NUMBER 
HOGS  PER 
ACRE 

TOTAL  GAIN 
PER  ACRE 

TOTAL  CON- 
CENTRATES 
FED  PER 
ACRE 

CONCEN- 
TRATES FED 
FOR  EACH 
100  LB. 
GAIN 

1910  .... 
1912  .... 

105 

68 

14 
16 

Ib. 
1412. 
869.3 

Ib. 

6584 
3112 

Ib. 
460 
350 

Average  .     .     . 

86.5 

15 

1140.6 

4848 

405 

The  chief  fault  of  this  crop  as  a  forage  is  its  coarseness 
and  its  carbonaceous  nature.  It  is  more  suitable  for 
cattle  or  sheep  than  it  is  for  pigs. 


SOYBEANS 


Although  primarily  a  southern  crop,  soybeans  are 
grown  very  successfully  as  far  north  as  the  corn-belt. 
When  conditions  are  favorable  to  good  yields,  it  is  of 
value  as  a  forage  crop  for  pigs.  When  grown  on  inocu- 


1  Bull.  143. 


2  Bull.  110. 


Choosing  a  Forage  Crop  179 

lated  land  it  is  a  good  soil  builder,  and  its  richness  in 
protein  insures  excellent  results  when  foraged  by  pigs 
fed  corn.  Being  particularly  a  hot  weather  crop,  it  is 
usually  available  in  the  late  summer  and  fall.  In  the 
South  it  will  furnish  considerable  valuable  forage  and 
much  nitrogen  for  the  soil  when  grown  as  a  second  crop 
following  grain.  It  may  be  pastured  as  a  green  forage 
by  turning  in  before  the  pods  begin  to  form,  or  as  a  seed 
crop  by  keeping  the  pigs  off  until  the  leaves  begin  to 
turn  and  the  seed  to  mature.  The  stiff  woody  nature  of 
the  growth  of  most  varieties  would  suggest  that  it  could  be 
used  more  profitably  for  its  seed  than  for  its  leaves.  If 
the  seeds  are  allowed  to  mature,  one  acre  of  good  beans 
will  furnish  enough  protein  for  grazing  shotes  to  balance 
four  acres  of  50-bushel  corn.  The  bean  itself  contains 
practically  as  much  protein  as  linseed-oil  meal.  Its 
value  as  a  supplement  to  corn  has  encouraged  the 
practice  of  planting  it  with  the  corn  which  is  to  be 
"hogged  down."  In  seasons  of  sufficient  rainfall,  the 
growth  of  beans  is  thought  to  have  little  effect  on  the 
yield  of  corn. 

Soybeans  as  a  forage  crop,  however,  has  certain  limi- 
tations. It  does  not  provide  grazing  through  a  long 
period.  When  foraged  chiefly  as  a  seed  crop,  its  use  is 
limited  to  the  fall  and  early  winter ;  when  used  as  a  green 
forage,  it  is  not  available  until  quite  late  in  the  summer. 
Also,  soybeans  tend  to  produce  soft  pork.  When  pigs 
grazing  the  mature  beans  are  fed  little  or  no  additional 
grain,  as  is  commonly  the  practice  in  the  South,  the 
carcasses  will  lack  the  firmness  to  escape  dockage  by  the 
packer.  When  followed  by  a  month  or  more  of  corn 
feeding,  however,  the  effects  are  not  noticeable  with 
pigs  of  the  lard  type. 


180 


Pork  Production 


Limited  versus  full  feeding  on  soybeans. 

At  the  Alabama  Experiment  Station  1  the  feeding  value 
of  soybeans  as  a  forage  crop  was  studied  in  experiments 
covering  three  seasons.  The  results  of  these  trials, 
averaged,  are  shown  in  Table  LII.  The  pigs  were  in 
growthy  condition  weighing  40  to  45  pounds  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  grazing  periods,  and  possessed  some  im- 
proved blood  of  the  common  lard  breeds.  In  each  year 
the  pigs  were  turned  in  about  three  or  four  weeks  before 
the  beans  themselves  were  ready  to  use,  or  about  one 
week  after  full  bloom.  The  object  was  to  begin  grazing 
early  enough  so  that  the  leaves  would  not  be  lost,  yet 
late  enough  to  permit  most  of  the  pods  to  fill.  To  handle 
the  crop  successfully  in  this  way,  the  authors  cautioned 
against  heavy  stocking  at  first. 

TABLE  LII.  —  SOYBEAN  FORAGE  FOR  PIGS   (Average  of  3  years) 


GRAIN  FED 

RATE  OF 
GRAZING 

AVERAGE 
NUMBER 
DAYS 
GRAZED 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN  PER 
PIG 

CORN  FED 
FOR  EACH 
100  LB. 
GAIN 

GRAIN  + 
PASTURE 
COST  OF 
100  LB. 

GAIN2 

Dry  lot 

Corn-meal 

Ib. 

.375 

Ib. 

609 

$7.61 

Soybeans 

Corn-meal 
I  full  feed 

10  pigs 
1  acre 

43 

1.102 

68 

2.59 

Soybeans 

Corn-meal 
I  full  feed 

10  pigs 
1  acre 

48 

1.006 

138 

3.36 

Soybeans 

Corn-meal 
£  full  feed 

10  pigs 
1  acre 

62 

1.329 

175 

3.17 

This  is  a  demonstration  in  the  possibilities  of  economical 
pork-production  in  the  South.    The  value  of  this  crop 

1  Bull.  154. 

2  Corn  at  70  cents  a  bushel ;  pasture  at  $8.00  an  acre. 


Choosing  a  Forage  Crop 


181 


not  only  as  a  soil  builder,  but  as  a  furnisher  of  protein  to 
balance  corn,  is  strikingly  shown  when  the  results  of  dry 
lot  feeding  are  compared  with  those  from  the  forage 
lots.  There  may  be  more  economical  methods  of  balanc- 
ing corn  in  the  South,  but  that  this  is  one  of  them  seems 
clear.  In  the  corn-belt,  pigs  foraging  the  mature  soy- 
beans ordinarily  should  receive  a  full  ration  of  corn, 
for  otherwise  the  pigs  will  obtain  an  excess  of  protein 
in  their  diet.  The  advisability  of  limiting  the  grain 
fed  when  pigs  are  on  forage  in  general  is  discussed  in 
Chapter  IX. 

Soybeans  versus  rape. 

The  value  of  soybeans  when  used  as  a  green  forage 
crop  for  45-pound  pigs,  when  compared  with  rape,  is 
suggested  by  the  results  of  an  experiment  conducted 
at  the  Ohio  Station.1  The  pigs  were  turned  in  on  the 
forage  crops  July  15  when  the  plants  were  about  ten 
inches  high  and  remained  77  days,  or  until  November  10. 
The  results  from  these  lots  are  shown  in  the  following 
table : 

TABLE  LIII.  —  SOYBEAN  FORAGE  VERSUS  RAPE 


FORAGE 

NUMBER 
PIGS  AND 
AREA 
GRAZED 

AVERAGE 
GRAIN  FED 
DAILY  PER 
PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN  PER 
PIQ 

CON- 
CENTRATES 
FED  FOR 
EACH  100 
LB.  GAIN 

PORK 
ACCREDITED 
TO  ONE 
ACRE 
FORAGE 

Soybeans     .     . 

Ib. 

6  pigs, 
i  acre 

Ib. 

2.43 

Ib. 

.85 

Ib. 

285 

Ib. 

472.4 

Rape       .     .     . 

6  pigs, 
|  acre 

1.79 

.80 

224 

666.8 

Bull.  242, 


182 


Pork  Production 


The  superiority  of  rape  when  the  two  crops  are  handled 
under  these  conditions  seems  evident  from  the  above 
results. 

At  the  Missouri  Station,1  records  were  kept  of  the 
returns  in  pork  obtained  from  the  Medium  Yellow  variety 
of  soybeans  during  four  seasons.  The  pigs  were  turned 
in  after  the  pods  were  well  formed  and  fed  straight  corn 
in  quantities  equal  to  three-fourths  of  a  full  feed.  The 
results  are  shown  in  Table  LIV. 

TABLE  LIV.  —  RESULTS    FROM  SOYBEAN  FORAGE 


YEAR 

NUMBER 
DAYS 
PASTURED 

AVERAGK 

NUMBER 
PIGS  PER 
ACRE 

TOTAL 
GAIN  PER 
ACRE 

TOTAL 
CORN  FED 
PER  ACRE 

CORN  FED 
FOR  EACH 
100  LB. 
GAIN 

1909  .... 

33 

10 

Z&. 

311 

Ib. 

1560 

Ib. 

503 

1910  .... 

42 

12 

298 

588 

197 

1911   .... 

35 

9.7 

287.3 

672 

230 

1912  .... 

16 

26. 

152 

416 

273 

Average  .     .     . 

31 

14.4 

262 

809 

301 

These  results  are  not  favorable  to  the  soybeans  when 
grown  and  handled  under  these  conditions.  The  un- 
satisfactory returns  obtained  from  an  acre  were  explained 
by  the  authors  as  being  due  largely  to  the  difficulty  of 
securing  a  good  stand.  They  recommend  for  best  results 
that  the  land  be  inoculated  before  the  beans  are  sown. 


COWPEAS 


Much  of  what  has  been  written  concerning  soybeans 
as  a  forage  crop  will  apply  to  the  cowpea,  particularly 

i  Bull.  110. 


Choosing  a  Forage  Crop  183 

as  regards  its  value  as  a  soil-builder,  its  richness  in  pro- 
tein as  a  feed,  and  its  general  adaptability  to  southern 
conditions.  Cowpeas  are  considered  more  strictly  a 
hay  or  forage  crop,  while  soybeans  are  usually  looked 
on  more  as  a  seed  crop.  Any  locality  which  can  grow 
cowpeas  successfully  has  a  valuable  forage  crop  for  pigs 
during  the  late  summer  and  fall.  Because  of  its  nitrog- 
enous nature,  pigs  fed  corn  on  cowpea  forage  require 
no  additional  feed. 

Cowpeas  versus  dry  lot. 

At  the  Alabama  Station1  three  lots  of  pigs  were  pas- 
tured on  cowpeas  and  one  was  fed  in  the  dry  lot.  In 
each  forage  lot  two  plantings  of  peas  were  provided,  one 
early  and  the  second  a  month  later.  The  peas  were 
practically  mature  when  the  pigs  were  turned  in.  The 
pigs  were  of  normal  quality  and  weighed  an  average  of 
53  pounds  when  the  test  began,  August  12.  The  experi- 
ment covered  a  period  of  60  days  and  ceased  November  5. 
The  results  are  shown  in  the  table  on  the  following  page. 

The  pigs  on  forage  in  this  experiment  made  faster 
gains  than  did  those  in  the  dry  lot  and  there  was  a 
saving  of  367  pounds  of  grain  in  the  production  of  100 
pounds  of  gain  as  a  result  of  the  forage  eaten.  But  the 
area  of  forage  grazed  was  so  large  in  each  lot  that  the 
charge  of  $8.00  an  acre  was  sufficient  to  make  the  cost 
of  gains,  in  dollars  and  cents,  greater  than  in  the  dry  lot. 
Although  the  cost  of  gain  is  but  one  of  the  factors  which 
must  be  considered  in  determining  the  actual  profit  or 
loss,  it  is  doubtful  whether  a  yield  sufficient  only  to 
graze  but  little  more  than  two  pigs  to  the  acre  for  60 
days  would  be  profitable.  The  popularity  of  cowpeas 
i  Bull.  168. 


184 


Pork  Production 


as  a  forage  crop  in  many  states  would  suggest  that  better 
yields  are  usually  secured  than  were  obtained  for  this 
experiment. 

TABLE  LV.  —  COWPEAS  VERSUS  DRY  LOT 


TOTAL 

FORAGE 

GRAIN  FED 

NUMBER 
PIGS  AND 
AREA 
GRAZED 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN  PER 
PIG 

GRAIN 
FED  FOR 
EACH 
100  LB. 
GAIN 

PASTURE 

AND 

GRAIN 
COST  OF 
100  LB. 

GAIN* 

pigs 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Dry  lot 

9  corn-hl  tankage 

Full  feed 

5  pigs 

.54 

540 

$7.16 

Cowpeas 

9  corn-f-1  tankage 

5  pigs 

i  full  feed 

2£  acres 

.97 

159 

8.35 

Cowpeas 

4  corn+1  shorts 

5  pigs 

\  full  feed 

1\  acres 

.94 

188 

8.96 

Cowpeas 

Corn  alone 

5  pigs 

\  full  feed 

2|  acres 

.90 

173 

8.80 

In  Table  LVI  are  shown  the  results  at  the  Missouri 
Station  2  from  grazing  pigs  on  the  Whippoorwill  variety 
of  cowpeas  during  five  different  seasons.  These  pigs 
were  fed  rations  of  straight  corn  at  the  rate  of  about 
three-fourths  of  a  full  feed.  From  1  to  Ij  bushels  of  seed 
were  drilled  to  the  acre.  Part  of  the  peas  were  drilled 
solid  and  part  in  rows  34  inches  apart. 

The  dates  on  which  the  pigs  were  turned  in  during 
the  different  years  were  as  follows,  in  order,  September 
23,  August  28,  September  13,  September  23,  and  Septem- 
ber 21.  In  1911  the  season  was  very  late  and  the  peas 
were  pastured  too  early  for  best  results.  The  crop  of 

1  Corn  at  70  cents  a  bushel ;  shorts  at  $36.00  a  ton ;    tankage 
at  $40.00  a  ton ;  and  pasture  at  $8.00  an  acre. 

2  Bull.  110. 


Choosing  a  Forage  Crop 


185 


1912  was  badly  injured  by  an  early  frost.  The  small 
returns  in  these  two  years  are,  therefore,  the  result  of 
inferior  yields.  In  only  two  of  the  five  years  were  the 
pork  returns  satisfactory. 

TABLE  LVI.  —  RESULTS  FROM  PASTURING  COWPEAS 


YEAR 

NUMBER 
DAYS 
PASTURED 

AVERAGE 
NUMBER 
PIGS  PER 
ACRE 

TOTAL 
GAIN  PER 
ACRE 

TOTAL 
CORN  FED 
PER  ACRE 

CORN  FED 
FOR  EACH 
100  LB. 
GAIN 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

1908    .... 

33 

14 

756 

2200 

330 

1909  .... 

32 

12 

502 

1270 

253 

1910   .... 

42 

12 

176 

784 

445 

1911   .... 

25 

13.5 

171.2 

504 

283 

1912  .... 

22 

12 

54.6 

264 

482 

Average  .     .     . 

32.8 

12.7 

331.9 

1004.5 

358 

PEANUTS;    VELVET  BEAN;    CHUFAS 

The  peanut  gives  excellent  results  when  the  under- 
ground seeds  or  nuts  are  foraged  by  pigs.  It  is  a  legume 
adapted  to  the  South,  rich  in  nitrogenous  matter,  and  of 
unusual  value  in  improving  the  soil  for  subsequent  crops. 
The  nuts  themselves  are  very  rich  in  oil  as  well  as  pro- 
tein. When  the  pigs  are  allowed  to  eat  the  nuts  without 
additional  feed,  the  pork  produced  is  soft  and  of  inferior 
quality.  When  fed  corn,  rice  by-products,  or  other 
carbonaceous  feeds,  however,  the  effect  is  not  particu- 
larly noticeable.  Also,  if  pigs  which  have  been  fed  exclu- 
sively on  peanuts  are  subsequently  given  a  month  or  more 
of  corn  feeding,  sufficient  firmness  of  the  carcass  would 
seem  to  be  assured.  When  grown  for  the  purpose  of 
improving  the  soil  and  to  furnish  a  reliable  yield  of  pro- 


186 


Pork  Production 


tein  feed  for  the  pigs  to  harvest  themselves,  peanuts 
appear  to  be  one  of  the  most  valuable  crops  for  produc- 
ing pork  economically  in  the  South. 

Peanut  forage  versus  dry  lot. 

In  Table  LVII  are  presented  the  average  results  of 
three  years'  experimental  work  done  at  the  Alabama 
Experiment  Station.1  The  peanuts  were  grown  on  poor 
sandy  soil.  Two  of  the  three  crops  were  below  40  per 
cent  of  an  average  yield.  The  pigs  were  turned  in  on 
September  21,  September  26,  and  October  11,  respec- 
tively, and  were  grazed  an  average  of  53  days.  A  mix- 
ture of  coal,  lime,  and  salt  was  fed  the  pigs  in  both  the 
peanut  and  dry  lots. 

TABLE  LVII.  —  PEANUT  PASTURE  VERSUS   DRY  LOT  (Average 
of  3  years) 


GRAIN  RATIONS 
FED 

TOTAL 
PIGS 
EACH  LOT 

Av.  INI- 
TIAL WT. 
PER  PIG 

Av.  DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

Av.  CORN 
FED  FOR 
EACH 
100  LB. 
GAIN 

CORN 
SAVED  BY 
1  ACRE 
PEANUTS 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Dry  lot 

Corn 
Full  feed 

15 

73 

.69 

611 

Peanut 

Corn 

pasture 

1  full  feed 

32 

81 

1.01 

148 

1028 

This  is  a  very  good  showing  for  peanuts,  especially 
when  one  remembers  that  succeeding  crops,  especially 
cotton,  are  greatly  benefited. 

The  velvet  bean  is  another  legume  especially  adapted  to 
the  Gulf  States.  The  following  results  of  a  feeding  trial 

1  Bull,  143. 


Choosing  a  Forage  Crop 


187 


conducted  at  the  Alabama  Station l  suggest  that  a  profit- 
able method  of  utilizing  this  crop  is  to  allow  the  pigs  to  do 
the  harvesting.  In  this  experiment  the  beans  were  planted 
in  with  corn,  and  the  pigs  turned  in  after  the  corn  had 
been  shucked.  Because  of  continual  drought  throughout 
the  season,  the  yield  of  cowpeas  was  very  disappointing. 
The  pigs  averaged  62  pounds  when  the  test  began  October 
4,  which  lasted  72  days,  or  until  December  15. 

TABLE  LVIII.  —  VELVET  BEAN  VERSUS  COWPEA   FORAGE 


FORAGE 

GRAIN 
RATIONS  FED 

NUMBER  PIGS 
AND  AREA 
GRAZED 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
*  GAIN 
PER  PIG 

CONCEN- 
TRATES 
FED  FOR 
EACH    * 
100  LB. 
GAIN 

PASTURE  * 
AND  GRAIN 
COST  OF 
100  LB. 
GAIN 

Dry  lot 

9  corn  +1 
tankage 
Full  feed 

pigs  :    acres 

5 

Ib. 
.84 

Z6. 

400 

$5.30 

Cowpeas 

9  corn  +1 
tankage 
£  full  feed 

5        1.1 

.76 

208 

9.56 

Velvet 
bean 

9  corn  +1 
tankage 
1  full  feed 

5       1.9 

1.23 

170 

5.29 

Because  of  the  protein  nature  of  both  the  cowpea  and 
velvet  bean  forages,  it  is  doubtful  whether  a  protein 
supplement  is  necessary,  especially  when  only  a  half 
ration  of  corn  is  fed.  The  velvet  bean,  nevertheless, 
made  an  excellent  showing  in  this  experiment,  especially 
when  the  area  grazed  is  credited  with  the  corn  as  well 
as  the  pork  produced.  When  the  mature  velvet  bean 

1  Bull.  168. 

2  Corn  at  70  cents  a  bushel ;   tankage  at  $40.00  a  ton ;  forage 
at  $8.00  an  acre. 


188 


Pork  Production 


seed  is  fed,  recent  investigations  indicate  that  it  is  not 
eaten  with  sufficient  relish  to  insure  profitable  gains. 

In  the  following  table  is  presented  a  summary  of  average 
results  obtained  with  different  forage  crops  tested  at  the 
Alabama  Experiment  Station.  The  experiments  were 
conducted  in  1905-06,  1906-07,  and  1907-08. 

TABLE  LIX.  —  SUMMARY  OF  AVERAGE  RESULTS  WITH  DIFFER- 
ENT FORAGE  CROPS  AT  THE  ALABAMA  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


RATIONS  FED 

TOTAL 
NUMBER 
PIGS 

AVERAGE 
DAILY  GAIN 
PER  Pia 

FEED  TO  PRODUCE  EACH 
100  LB.  GAIN 

Concentrates 

Pasture  Area 

Corn  alone  .     . 

15 

Ib. 

.69 

Ib. 

611 

acre 

Corn1 
Peanut  pasture 

32 

1.01 

183 

.44 

Corn  f,1 
Cottonseed 
meal  f  , 
Peanut  pasture 

4 

1.00 

158 

.08 

Corn 
Sorghum     pas- 
ture    .     .     . 

6 

.37 

437 

.57 

Corn  1,  cotton- 
seed meal  f,2 
Sorghum     pas- 
ture    .     .     . 

11 

.46 

388 

.26 

Corn 
Chuf  a  pasture 

3 

.72 

305 

.41 

Corn 
Soybean  pasture 

6 

1.02 

158 

.28 

Corn  1,  cotton- 
seed meal  £ 
Sorghum  soiled 

5 

.75 

271 

.13 

1  These  lots  are  not  comparable. 

2  Cottonseed  meal  is  dangerous  when  fed  for  a  longer  period 
than  a  month. 


Choosing  a  Forage  Crop 


189 


RECOMMENDATIONS  FOR  FORAGE  CROP  PLANTINGS 

For  every  farm  there  is  probably  a  succession  or  rotation 
of  forage  crops  which  is  more  suitable  and  valuable  than 
any  other.  It  should  be  the  purpose  of  every  hog-raiser 
to  determine  this.  With  the  idea  of  supplementing  the 
records  of  experimental  studies,  there  are  given  in  the 
following  tables  the  forage  crops  which  have  been 
recommended  in  the  different  states  as  being  best 
adapted  to  their  respective  conditions,  together  with 
other  useful  information  regarding  rate  of  seeding,  time 
and  rate  of  pasturing. 

TABLE  LX.  —  FORAGE  CROPS  FOR  INDIANA  J 


CROPS 

APPROXIMATE 
DATE  OF 
SOWING 

RATE  OP 
SOWING 
PER  ACRE 

APPROXIMATE 
TIME  OP 
PASTURING 

NUMBER  OP 
100-LB.  PIGS 
PER  ACRE 

SERIES  I 
Oats  .     .     . 
Rape  .     .     . 
Rape  .     .     . 
Clover,    red 
or     mam- 
moth  .     . 
Cowpeas   or 
soybeans. 
Rye    .     .     . 

Mar.  20-Apr.  10 
Apr.  1-15 
Apr.  15-May  1 

Mar.  25-Apr.  15 

May  20-  June  10 
Aug.  or  Sept. 

2-3  bu. 
2-6  Ib. 
2-6  Ib. 

i  to  Hbu. 
1  to  H  bu. 

May  1-June  1 
May  25-July  1 
June  25-July  25 

July  15-Sept.  1 

Aug.  25-Oct.  15 
Oct.  1  to  freezing 

8-12 
12-20 
12-15 

8-10 

12-18 
10-15 

SERIES  II 
Rye    .     .     . 
Rape  .     .     . 
Rape  .     .     . 
Rape  .     .     . 
Clover     .     . 
Cowpeas 
Rye    .     .     . 

Aug.  or  Sept. 
Apr.  1-10 
Apr.  20-30 
Apr.  1-10 
Mar.  25-Apr.  10 
May  20-30 
August 

1  to  H  bu. 
2-6  Ib. 
2-6  Ib. 
2-6  Ib. 

£  to  H  bu. 
1  to  1  %  bu. 

Apr.  1-May  15 
May  15-  June  15 
June  15-  July  15 
July  10-Aug.  1 
July  15-Sept.  1 
Aug.  20-Oct.  10 
Oct.  1  to  freezing 

8-10 
12-20 
12-20 
12-20 
8-10 
12-18 

SERIES  III 
Rape       and 
oats     .     . 

Rape  .     .     . 
Rape  .     .     . 

Apr.  1-10 

Apr.  20-May  1 
Alternate  between 
previous  sowings 

2-4  Ib.  rape 
1£  bu.  oats 
2-6  Ib. 
2-6  Ib. 

May  15-June  15 

June  10-  July  15 
July  15-Nov.  15 

12-20 

12-20 
12-15 

1  Fisher  and  King :  Circ.  35,  Ind.  Exp.  Sta. 


190  Pork  Production 

TABLE  LXI.  —  FORAGE  CROPS  FOR  MISSOURI  l 


CROPS 

APPROXIMATE  DATE 
OP  SOWING 

MONTH  AVAILABLE 
FOR  PASTURE 

NUMBER 
OF  HOGS 
PER  ACRE 

Blue-grass  .... 

April 

6-  8 

Rye         

August  and  September 

** 

8-12 

Wheat    

September  and  October 

» 

6-10 

Blue-grass  and  white 

clover      .... 

May 

6-10 

Clover    

Previous  spring 

ii 

8-12 

Oats  and  rape.     .     . 

April  1-10 

•• 

15-20 

Alfalfa    

Not  less  than  1  year  old 

" 

15-20 

Timothy     .... 

Previous  year 

" 

8-12 

Clover 

Previous  year 

June 

8-12 

Alfalfa    

Not  less  than  1  year  old 

15-20 

Rape  and  oats      .     . 

April  15-30 

" 

20-25 

Blue-grass  and  white 

clover      .... 

" 

8-10 

Clover  and  timothy  . 

Old,  or  spring  sown 

July 

8-12 

Alfalfa 

1  year  old 

** 

15-20 

Rape 

May  15—  June  1 

it 

12-15 

Sorghum     .... 

April  15-May  1 

"    • 

20-25 

Alfalfa 

1  year  old  or  over 

August 

12-15 

Clover    

Spring  sown 

8-12 

Rape      

April  1—10,  grazed  down 

once 

•• 

12-15 

Sorghum      .... 

June  1-10 

" 

20-25 

Alfalfa    .     -     .     .     . 

Previous  year 

Septembe 

15-20 

Rape       

July,    or    April    15-30, 

grazed  down  once 

" 

20-25 

Blue-grass  and  white 

clover      .... 

11 

6-8 

Cowpeas     .... 

June  15 

" 

12-20 

Sorghum     .... 

July  1 

•• 

20-25 

Blue-grass  and  white 

clover      .... 

October 

5-7 

Timothy  and  clover. 

Spring 

«< 

8-10 

Alfalfa    

1  year  old 

" 

12-15 

Cowpeas     .... 

July  in  corn 

" 

12-15 

Rye    

August  and  September 

" 

8-10 

Wheat    

September 

" 

6-8 

Blue-grass  .... 

November 

6-8 

Rye     and     crimson 

clover      .... 

August  and  September 

11 

8-10 

Rape 

July     and     August,     or 

second  growth 

" 

12-15 

Clover    

Spring 

" 

10 

Alfalfa    

" 

10-12 

Rye   

August  and  September 

December,  January, 

February  and  March 

Wheat    

September  and  October 

" 

Blue-grass  .... 

King :  Vol.  7,  No.  5 ;   Mo.  State  Bd.  Agr. 


Choosing  a  Forage  Crop 


191 


As  the  result  of  the  experimental  studies  at  the  Mis- 
souri Experiment  Station,  Mumford  and  Weaver  recom- 
mended the  following  rotation  as  being  ideal  for  Missouri 
conditions. 


TABLE  LXII.  —  FORAGE  ROTATION  FOR  MISSOURI 


YEAR 

FIELD  No.  1 

FIELD  No.  2 

FIELD  No.  3 

FIELD  No.  4 

FIELD  No.  5 

First  .     . 

Blue-grass 

Rape,  oats, 
and  clover 

Clover 

Sorghum 

Corn  and 
cowpeas 
Rape,  oats, 
and  clover 

Second    . 

Clover 

Sorghum 

Corn  and 
cowpeas 

Third       . 

" 

Sorghum 

Corn  and 
cowpeas 

Rape,  oats, 
and  clover 

Clover 

Fourth    . 

Corn  and 
cowpeas 

Rape,  oats 
and  clover 

Clover 

Sorghum 

TABLE  LXIII.  —  FOUR-YEAR  FORAGE  ROTATIONS  FOR  NORTH 

DAKOTA  2 


YEAR 

LOT  I 

LOT  II 

LOT  HI 

LOT  IV 

1st 
First     

Peas 

Peas 

Grain 

Clover 

Peas 

Grain 

Clover 

Peas 

Third 

Grain 

Clover 

Peas 

Peas 

Fourth     ...          .     . 

Clover 

Peas 

Peas 

Grain 

2d 
First     

Brome 

Rape 

Peas 

Corn 

Second 

Brome 

Peas 

Corn 

Rape 

Third   

Brome 

Corn 

Rape 

Peas 

Fourth 

Corn 

Rape 

Peas 

Brome 

1  Mumford  and  Weaver:   Bull.  110,  Mo.  Exp.  Sta. 

2  Richards :  N.  Dak.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  83. 


192  Pork  Production 

TABLE  LXIV.  —  PASTURE  CROPS  FOR  SUB-HUMID  DISTRICTS  l 


CROPS 

APPROXIMATE  DATE  OP 
SOWING 

APPROXIMATE  TIME  OF 
PASTURING 

NUMBER 
HOGS  PER 
ACRE 

Winter  wheat  .     . 

Early  in  September 

Oct.  15-Nov.  15, 

5-8 

Mar.  15-June  1 

Clover    .... 

April,  previous  year 

April  10-Dec.  1 

8-15 

Alfalfa    .... 

A  previous  year 

April  15-Nov.  15 

8-15 

Kale  or  rape    .     . 

April  and  May 

June  15-  Dec.  1 

8-15 

Rape  and  clover  . 

May  1 

July  10-Nov.  15 

6-14 

Winter  wheat  .     . 

Early  in  May 

June  1-Nov.  15 

6-15 

Wheat  in  corn 

July  15-20 

Sept.  15-Nov.  15 

6-12 

Stubble  field    .     . 

Aug.  25-April  1 

TABLE  LXV.  —  FORAGE  CROPS  FOR  NORTH  CAROLINA  2 


CROPS 

APPROXIMATE  DATE 
op  SOWING 

DATE  OF  SOWING 
PER  ACRE 

APPROXIMATE  TIME 
OF  PASTURING 

Rye    

Aug.  1-Dec.  1 

Ubu. 

Oct.  1-Apr.  20 

Rye     and      crimson 

Ibu. 

clover  .... 

Aug.  1-Oct.  1 

15  Ib. 

Nov.  15-Apr.  25 

Oats  

Sept.  10-Nov.  15 

U-2bu. 

Nov.  1-July  15 

Wheat     

Sept.  15-Dec.  1 

Ubu. 

Nov.  30-July  15 

Oats  and  vetch     .     . 

Aug.  10-Oct.  1 

Ubu. 

£bu. 

Nov.  15-Apr.  20 

New  Era  cowpeas     . 

May  15-July  15 

1  bu. 

July  10-Oct.  15 

Soybeans     .... 

May  15-July  15 

Ibu. 

July  15-Oct.  15 

Carolina    field    peas 

1  bu. 

Apr.  15-June  15 

and  oats  .... 

Feb.  15-Mar.  1 

1  bu. 

Alfalfa    

Sept.  1-Oct.  15 

30  Ib. 

May  20-Sept.  20 

Bermuda  grass     .     . 

Mar.  15-May  15 

Root-stocks 

June  1-Aug.  15 

Spanish  peanuts  .     . 

May  15-July  15 

2  bu.  in  hills 

Sept.  1-Dec.  15 

Sweet  potatoes     .     . 

May  1-July  1 

10,000  plants  per 

Sept.  15-Dec.  1 

acre 

Mangels       .... 

Apr.  20-May  15 

4-5  Ib. 

Oct.  15-Jan.  1 

Chufas    

Apr.  1-May  10 

2bu. 

Sept.  15-Jan.  1 

Artichokes  .... 

Nov.  1-Feb.  20 

3-5  bu. 

Nov.  1-Mar.  1 

Burr  clover      .     .     . 

Sept.  1-Oct.  1 

20  Ib.  cleaned 

40  Ib.  burr 

Dec.  1-Mar.  1 

Red  clover  .... 

Sept.  10-Oct.  15 

15  Ib. 

Apr.  1-June  15 

Japan  clover    .     .     . 

Apr.  1-May  15 

25  Ib. 

June  1-Sept.  15 

White  clover    .     .     . 

Sept.  1-Oct.  1 

5-8  Ib. 

Dec.  15-June  1 

Rape                 .     .     . 

Aug.  15-May  1 

6  Ib. 

8-10    weeks    from 

seeding 

1  Hunter :  Farmers'  Bull.  599,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr, 

2  Curtis :  Bull.  207,  N.  C.  Exp.  Sta. 


Choosing  a  Forage  Crop 


193 


TABLE  LXVI.  —  SUCCESSION  OF  FORAGE  CROPS  FOR 
ALABAMA  l 


CROPS 

APPROXIMATE  DATE 
OP  SOWING 

RATE  op  SOWING 
PER  ACRE 

NUMBER  DATS 
AFTER  PLANT- 
ING UNTIL 
READY  TO 
GRAZE 

FALL  PLANT- 

INGS: 

Alfalfa    .     . 

Sept.  1-Oct.  15 

15-25  Ib. 

90-120 

Burr  clover 

Sept.  1-Oct.  1 

15-20  Ib.  cleaned 

90-120 

36  Ib.  in  burr 

Oats  .     .     . 

Sept.  1-Nov.  1 

li  to  3  bu. 

90-120 

Rape  .     .     . 

Sept.  20-Oct.  15 

4-6  Ib.  drilled 

60-75 

5-10  Ib.  broadcast 

Rye    .     .     . 

Sept.  1-Nov.  1 

U  -2  bu. 

90-120 

Vetch      .     . 

Sept.  1-Oct.  15 

1  bu. 

90-120 

SPRING  PLANT- 

INGS: 

Alfalfa    .     . 

Feb.  25-April  1 

15-25  Ib. 

75-90 

Chufas    .     . 

Mar.  15-  June  1 

3-4  pks. 

120-150 

?  bu.  drilled 

Cowpeas 

May  1-July  10 

1^  bu.  broadcast 

75-90 

Japan  clover 

Mar.  1-Mar.  15 

24  Ib. 

60-75 

Oats  .     .     . 

Feb.  1-Mar.  20 

l?-3  bu. 

75-90 

Peanuts  .     . 

May  1-June  30 

1-2  bu.  unhulled 

90-120 

4-6  Ib.  drilled 

Rape  .     .     . 

Mar.  1-31 

9-10  Ib.  broadcast 

60-75 

Sorghum 

Apr.  1-June  30 

U-2  bu. 

60-90 

\  bu.  drilled 

Soybeans     . 

Apr.  1-June  30 

\\  bu.  broadcast 

90-120 

1  Gray,  Duggar,  and  Ridgway :  Bull.  143,  Ala.  Exp.  Sta. 


CHAPTER  IX 

METHODS   OF  FEEDING   ON  FORAGE 

THE  question  whether  pigs  fed  corn  or  other  home- 
grown grains  when  on  green  forage  should  receive  in 
addition  a  nitrogenous  supplement  like  tankage,  shorts, 
or  linseed-oil  meal,  is  one  which  demands  the  attention 
of  nearly  all  hog-raisers.  Three  important  factors  affect 
this  problem  and  should  be  considered  before  a  decision 
is  reached.  These  are :  first,  the  composition  of  the 
forage,  particularly  as  regards  its  supply  of  protein; 
second,  the  age  of  the  pigs;  and  third,  whether  a  full 
or  a  limited  grain  ration  is  fed.  In  addition,  the  price 
of  these  supplements  must  be  considered  in  every  case. 

THE  COMPOSITION  OF  FORAGE  CROPS 

The  ability  of  a  forage  successfully  to  balance  a  straight 
grain  ration  depends  on  its  richness  in  protein  and  the 
quantity  of  forage  eaten  by  the  pigs.  That  some  forage 
crops  contain  more  protein  than  others,  and  that  the 
same  forage  varies  widely  at  different  states  of  its  growth, 
are  shown  by  the  analysis  presented  in  Table  LXVII. 

It  is  generally  understood  that  the  legumes  —  alfalfa, 
clovers,  soybeans,  and  cowpeas  —  are  considerably  richer 
as  a  class  in  protein,  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of 
carbohydrates,  than  are  the  non-legumes  like  rape, 
green  rye,  blue-grass.  An  examination  of  this  table, 
however,  will  fail  to  show  any  great  difference,  especially 

194 


Methods  of  Feeding  on  Forage  195 

when  the  analyses  are  made  at  the  stages  of  growth  when 
eaten  by  the  pigs.  Rape  is  shown  here  to  contain  a 
larger  proportion  of  protein  to  carbohydrates  than  does 
medium  red  clover,  and  as  much  as  alfalfa.  Blue-grass, 
green  rye,  oats,  and  green  wheat  when  grazed  while  young 
and  before  jointing  would  appear  to  be  in  the  same  class 
as  rape.  With  advancing  maturity,  however,  these  crops, 
excepting  rape,  rapidly  lose  their  protein  nature  and  be- 
come as  fattening  in  their  proportions  as  corn. 

The  younger  the  pig,  other  things  being  equal,  the  more 
protein  does  his  system  require.  A  forage  supplying 
sufficient  protein  to  balance  corn  for  fall  pigs  weighing 
more  than  100  pounds  might  require  the  addition  of  some 
supplement  for  spring  pigs  weighing  less  than  100  pounds. 
For  the  same  reason,  pigs  farrowed  in  the  spring  require 
less  protein  in  the  late  summer  than  early  in  the  summer. 

When  pigs  are  given  a  full  ration  of  corn  on  forage, 
they  eat  less  forage  both  absolutely  and  relatively  than 
when  the  grain  ration  is  limited  to  a  three-fourths  or 
a  half  ration.  The  more  intensive  the  grain  feeding, 
therefore,  the  greater  the  necessity  of  adding  some  meat- 
meal,  middlings,  and  the  like,  to  the  grain  fed.  When 
young  pigs  are  fed  only  a  half  grain  ration  on  alfalfa, 
it  is  very  doubtful  whether  a  supplement  is  warranted; 
but  when  given  a  full  feed  of  grain  on  alfalfa,  a  protein 
supplement  might  be  profitable. 

EXPERIMENTAL   FEEDING  TRIALS 

A  consideration  of  practical  feeding  tests,  however, 
is  necessary  properly  to  supplement  our  limited  knowl- 
edge of  the  composition  of  the  different  forage  crops  and 
the  other  factors  involved.  The  advisability  of  giving 


196 


Pork  Production 


"S'SS 

<»  ro>  a 

oPufc.aj 


*-  5 
£:"  'M     ,5"  M 


OOCiOOGO 

co'o 


1>  O  <N 

<NI>  l>  POrHTH»OOtN.COC<JrH  Oi  -^  00 

lOCN  1-5  (N(NC<ii-HCOT-HT-5^HCsi  rH  I-H  <N 

iOO  <M  t>OOOO5iOcOi-iO  iO  CO  »O 

coco  co  coc5O5Oocqoqco-^  o  CD  TJH 

O5O  O  t^COOOOO'-HCOOO  O  Tfi  CO 

i-J(N  O  COOJO5(NO5O>l>TtJOO  --H  GO  •* 

iO»O  CO  C^(M'^HTj5cO'Oi-HTHi-i  T-H  rj5  CO 

(NO  00  CO(MT(<<Nl>O5OiOeo  (X)  (N  -^ 

TtHco  GO  »ooioqqqqqi>  oq  -^  S 

OOi  iO  t^t^COGOOi-H^TjHCO  Oi  iO  Tj5 

iOO  CO  GO»-iOC^TfH^-iOCOrH  t^  CO  CO 

<NCO  cq  t^ioiot^iocoqi-ioq  co  q  I-H 

1010  T}5  (N^cdc^coiNT^iNc^  id  <N  co 

O5O  <N  OOO(NOTticOI>GO  CO  •*  GO 

T^<N  10  cooqqoqoqiNqt^q  oj  q  ^ 

(NCO  (N  ^^HrHC^ilOOOCOO'cJ  O  O  O 

IOI>  GO  COGOOOGO1>I>.COOSOO  GO  GO  GO 


II 

6S 


PH  ^ 


* 


' 


Ji-s 

i  o  2 

S^.2 

h  O 

O      PQ 


JS^a^Drdwj 

|l|||I|a 

...-9-S 


aa 


-- 


c' 

»M  °  ^      S      ^ 


1     £ 


i-    1 


O 


=     - 

O      OPn      PH      Q      Q 


Methods  of  Feeding  on  Forage 


197 


iO  T5 

»>=    >    d 


k^    O  k>          O 
rH  rH  HH  HH 


l>         rH          t^  00  00  t^  00      '    O  Tt<          CD  O  IO  00  >O 

10       co       coTjHco'od       oi  co       c<ioq^coo6 


rH    <N    <N    IM    i-H  (NCO  COrJHfMrHrH 


SS8 


CDt^<MO<N         (MCD         rH<M"^C<)(M 


SO         Tt<t>-OOO5         OOCO         rf-^rHiO 
C<J         CO^MC^jiO         C^jrH         CDC^C^iOO 
CD         iO         o6rHO5Oi>O         i-5  r-5         OOiOOJCDO 


GO  00  OCOrHOirH  T^O  CDCD<M1> 

O  >O  OrHCOOt^-  TfCO  lOTflrHOSrH 

OJ  <N  -rJHT^-^TlHT^  t>lO  CO^COC^O 


ss 


§>O    rH    IO  >O    O 

<M  I-H  co       i>  35 


00  <N  O  »O  O 

I>   00   00   00    rH 


a 


43 

s  g-a-e  ^  s 

rH  a?  .3    .  o  .9 
i|o.S|^5a.« 

-5     "    HN  ^H       2    r-a 


ls'lll'I  =  -s.a.s 

f^>P4O>OrTHr^    OOO  rH 


•So 


I 

«.9 


O  O 

I »? 

lsl 

o    o 


198 


Pork  Production 


a  nitrogenous  concentrate  when  pigs  are  fed  on  forage 
will  be  suggested  by  the  results  of  experiment  station 
studies  tabulated  in  the  following  pages. 

Supplements  for  pigs  on  rape. 

In  Table  LXVIII  are  the  results  obtained  at  the  Mis- 
souri Experiment  Station  when  pure-bred  Poland-China 
gilts  on  good  rape  forage  were  fed  different  rations.  The 
pigs  were  spring-farrowed  and  averaged  40  pounds  in 
each  lot  at  the  beginning  of  the  test,  which  lasted  112 
days. 

TABLE   LXVIII.  —  CORN    VERSUS   CORN   AND   A   SUPPLEMENT 
FOR  PIGS  ON  RAPE  x 


RATIONS 

FORAGE 

AVERAGE  DAILY 
FEED  PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN  PER 
PIG 

CONCENTRATES 
FED  FOR  EACH 
100  LB.  GAIN 

4  eorn+ 
4  shorts  -f 
1  bran+ 
1  tankage 

Rape 

Ib, 

3.50 

Ib. 

1.01 

Ib. 

348 

9  corn+ 
1  Tankage 

« 

3.50 

1.05 

332 

1  corn+ 
1  shorts 

3.50 

.96 

364 

1  corn  + 
4  skim-milk 

« 

1.88  corn 
6.04  skim-milk 

.98 

193  corn 
772  skim-milk 

Corn  alone 

« 

3.10 

.80 

390 

These  gilts  averaged  approximately  153  pounds  when 
the  experiment  closed.  In  all  cases  the  feeding  of  a 
supplement  with  the  corn  gave  faster  gains  than  when 

1  L.  A.  Weaver :  Poland-China  Journal,  July,  1917. 


Methods  of  Feeding  on  Forage 


199 


the  corn  was  fed  alone.  There  was  also  a  saving  in  the 
feed  required  for  each  100  pounds  of  gain.  The  ration 
of  9  parts  of  corn  and  1  of  tankage  proved  the  best. 
With  normal  prices,  this  ration  would  give  more  profitable 
results  than  corn  alone. 

Evvard  of  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station l  fed  different 
proportions  of  meat-meal  or  tankage  with  corn  to  spring 
pigs  on  alfalfa  and  rape  with  the  following  interesting 
results,  as  shown  in  Table  LXIX. 


TABLE    LXIX.  —  BEST   PROPORTION    OP    TANKAGE    TO    FEED 
WITH  CORN  TO  PIGS  ON  RAPE  AND  ALFALFA 


RATIONS 

FORAGE 

AVERAGE 
NUMBER 
PIGS 
PER  ACRE 

LENGTH 
OP  PERIOD 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN  PER 
PIG 

CONCENTRATES 
FED  FOR  EACH 
100  LB.  GAIN 

Corn  alone 

Rape 

25 

days 

160 

Ib. 
.81 

Ib. 

338  corn 

\2\  corn-h 
1  tankage 

« 

25.9 

160 

.93 

316  com 
25  tankage 

8^  corn-|- 
1  tankage 

(i 

27.3 

160 

.96 

311  corn 
38  tankage 

7  corn+ 
1  tankage 

« 

28.3 

160 

.96 

309  corn 
44  tankage 

Corn  alone 

Alfalfa 

44.4 

190 

.64 

398  corn 

13|  corn 
1  tankage 

« 

43.5 

190 

.94 

329  corn 
24  tankage 

Regarding  the  advisability  of  feeding  tankage  or  meat- 
meal  to  pigs  on  rape,  Evvard  says :  "  Rape  requires  very 
little  if  any  supplement.  Our  experience  indicates,  and 
the  above  figures  are  in  line  with  this,  that  about  5  per 


1  Proc.  Am.  Soc.  Animal  Nutrition  :  1913. 


200 


Pork  Production 


cent  as  much  meat-meal  as  corn  is  sufficient  in  the  growing 
and  fattening  of  spring  pigs  while  on  rape." 

The  feeding  of  the  7  to  8  per  cent  of  tankage  with  the 
corn  was  profitable  here  with  the  pigs  on  alfalfa. 

At  the  Ohio  Station,  one  lot  of  pigs  was  fed  corn  alone 
on  rape,  and  a  second  corn  and  tankage  on  rape.  These 
pigs  were  spring  farrowed  and  weighed  about  44  pounds 
each  when  the  test  began.  The  experiment  lasted  77 
days.  The  following  table  shows  the  results: 

TABLE  LXX.  —  CORN  VERSUS  CORN  AND   TANKAGE  FOR  PIGS 
ON  RAPE  l 


RATIONS 

FOBAGE 

AVERAGE 
FEED  DAILY 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY  GAIN 
PER  PIG 

CONCENTRATES 
FED  FOR  EACH 
100  LB.  GAIN 

Corn  alone 

Rape 

Ib. 

1.79 

Ib. 

.77 

Ib. 

231.8 

9  Corn  and  | 
1  tankage     j  . 

" 

1.79 

.80 

201.24  corn 
22.36  tankage 

The  pigs  in  this  experiment  were  fed  a  very  limited 
amount  of  grain  and  the  rates  of  gain  in  the  two  lots 
were  practically  the  same.  Twenty-two  pounds  of  tank- 
age effected  a  saving  only  of  30  pounds  of  corn.  Straight 
corn  was,  therefore,  practically  as  efficient  as  corn  and 
tankage.  At  the  usual  prices,  corn  alone  was  the  more 
profitable  ration.  In  interpreting  the  results  of  this 
trial,  one  should  remember  that  no  more  than  half  rations 
were  fed. 

Amount  of  supplements  on  alfalfa. 
In  the  following  table  are  summarized  the  results  of 
one  experiment  conducted  at  the   Kansas  Experiment 
1  Carmichael  and  Eastwood :  Ohio  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  242. 


PLATE  V.  —  Above,  Sows  and  pigs  on  alfalfa ;  middle,  Pigs  in 
clover ;  below,  Pigs  in  rape. 


Methods  of  Feeding  on  Forage 


201 


Station  and  two  at  the  Nebraska  Station.  The  pigs 
in  the  Kansas  experiment  averaged  32  pounds  when  the 
test  began  and  in  the  Nebraska  experiments  39  and  68 
pounds  respectively.  Full  grain  rations  were  fed  in  the 
former;  while  practically  one-half  rations  were  fed  in 
the  first  Nebraska  experiment. 

TABLE  LXXI.  —  CORN  ALONE  VERSUS  CORN   AND  A  SUPPLE- 
MENT FOR  PIGS  ON  ALFALFA  * 


RATIONS 

FORAGE 

NUMBER 
PIGS 

AVERAGE 
FEED 
DAILY 

PER  PlQ 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

CONCEN- 
TRATES RE- 
QUIRED FOR 
EACH  100 
LB.  GAIN 

Corn  alone 

Alfalfa 

10 

Ib. 

2.48 

Ib. 
.649 

Ib. 

384 

Corn  62%      1 
Shorts  30%    | 
Tankage  8%  j 

« 

10 

4.29 

1.222 

351 

Corn  alone 

Alfalfa 

30 

21b. 
per  cwt. 

.63 

173 

3  corn     1  shorts 

" 

30 

« 

.53 

196 

95%  corn        \ 
5%  tankage/ 

Alfalfa 

8 

— 

1.03 

345 

90%  corn        \ 
10%  tankage/ 

(t 

8 

— 

1.03 

349 

The  results  from  these  experiments  appear  contra- 
dictory. Just  why  the  pigs  fed  corn  alone  in  the  first 
experiment  did  not  eat  more  and  gain  faster  is  not  clear. 
When  weanling  pigs  are  fed  half  rations  on  good  alfalfa 
pasture,  the  results  of  the  first  Nebraska  experiment 
would  indicate  that  the  addition  of  a  protein  supplement 

1  Kans.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  192,  Wright.  Neb.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull 
99  and  94,  Snyder  and  Burnett. 


202 


Pork  Production 


is  altogether  unnecessary.  The  composition  of  green 
forage  makes  this  seem  reasonable.  In  the  second 
Nebraska  experiment,  5  per  cent  of  tankage  with  corn 
proved  as  efficient  as  10  per  cent. 

Supplements  for  pigs  on  winter  rye. 

Two  experiments  at  the  Kentucky  Experiment  Station 
were  calculated  to  answer  the  question  as  to  whether 
it  was  necessary  to  feed  a  nitrogenous  supplement  with 
corn  to  young  pigs  on  winter  rye.  The  pigs  in  both  trials 
averaged  about  48  pounds  at  the  beginning.  The  experi- 
ments began  in  November  and  closed  in  May  and  April, 
respectively. 

TABLE  LXXII.  —  CORN  ALONE  VERSUS  CORN  AND  SOYBEANS 
OR  TANKAGE  FOR  PIGS  ON  WINTER  RYE  * 


AVERAGE 

AVERAGE 

CONCENTRATES 

FORAGE 

RATIONS 

NUMBER 
OF  PIGS 

FEED 
DAILY 

DAILY 
GAIN  PER 

REQUIRED  TO 
PRODUCE 

PER  PIG 

PIG 

100  LB.  GAIN 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Jb. 

Corn-meal 

Winter  rye 

5 

3.21 

.78 

411 

6  corn-meal  -f- 

<«         it 

4 

3.58 

.98 

365 

1  soybean  meal 

Corn-meal 

Winter  rye 

7 

4.09 

.85 

480 

10  corn-meal  + 

"         " 

7 

4.25 

1.13 

376 

1  tankage 

In  these  experiments  it  was  profitable  to  feed  the 
soybeans  and  tankage.  Although  young  rye  is  very 
rich  in  its  content  of  protein,  the  quantity  of  forage 
eaten  on  the  dry  matter  basis,  especially  during  the 

*  Good :  Ky.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  175. 


Methods  of  Feeding  on  Forage 


203 


winter,  would  seem  to  be  insufficient  to  supply  the  re- 
quirements of  the  pigs  when  given  a  full  feed  of  corn. 

Supplements  for  pigs  on  timothy  and  blue-grass. 

An  experiment  conducted  at  the  Iowa  Experiment 
Station  compared  a  ration  of  corn  alone  with  one  made 
up  of  2  parts  corn  and  1  shorts,  and  another  of  5  parts 
corn  to  1  meat-meal,  for  59-pound  pigs  on  timothy  pas- 
ture. A  fourth  lot  of  pigs  on  red  clover  was  fed  corn 
alone.  The  experiment  covered  a  period  of  112  days, 
beginning  July  24  and  closing  November  13.  The  results 
are  shown  in  the  following  table : 


TABLE  LXXIII.  —  CORN  ALONE  VERSUS  CORN  AND  A  SUPPLE- 
MENT FOR  PIGS  ON  TIMOTHY  1 


AVERAGE 

AVERAGE 

CONCENTRATES 

RATIONS 

FORAGE 

NUMBER 
OF  PIGS 

FEED 
DAILY 

DAILY 
GAIN  PER 

REQUIRED  TO 
PRODUCE 

PER  PIG 

PIG 

100  LB.  GAIN 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

2  corn-f 

1  shorts 

Timothy 

10 

4.50 

1.12 

400.90 

5  corn  + 

1  meat-meal 

« 

10 

5.48 

1.37 

409.60 

Corn  alone 

« 

10 

4.17 

.92 

451.40 

Corn  alone 

Clover 

10 

4.97 

1.19 

416.10 

The  pigs  given  meat-meal  with  their  corn  were  approxi- 
mately 50  pounds  heavier  at  the  close  of  the  experiment 
than  were  those  fed  corn  alone  on  timothy.  Not  only 
did  these  pigs  gain  faster,  but  less  feed  was  required  to 
produce  a  given  gain.  One  pound  of  meat-meal  replaced 

1  Kennedy  and  Robbins :  Iowa  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  91. 


204 


Pork  Production 


1.6  pounds  of  corn.  With  normal  prices  for  feed,  this 
would  not  mean  a  saving  in  the  actual  cost  of  producing 
100  pounds  of  gain,  but  the  heavier  weight  and  the  quicker 
market  finish  of  those  fed  meat-meal  would  insure  a 
profit.  A  smaller  proportion  of  meat-meal  would  prob- 
ably have  been  more  profitable.  The  pigs  fed  shorts 
with  their  corn  made  somewhat  faster  gains  than  those 
given  corn  alone,  but  with  the  usual  prices  the  cost  of 
gains  was  no  cheaper. 

It  is  apparent  from  these  results  that  when  rapid  gains 
and  a  quick  market  finish  are  especially  desired,  the  feed- 
ing of  a  nitrogenous  supplement  might  be  profitable. 
The  excellent  showing  of  the  pigs  on  clover  compared  with 
the  other  lots  is  about  what  would  be  expected  from  a 
knowledge  of  its  composition. 

The  best  proportion  of  tankage  to  feed  with  corn  to 
48-pound  pigs  when  on  a  pasture  of  blue-grass  and  timothy 
was  tested  in  an  experiment  at  the  Ohio  Experiment 
Station1  lasting  140  days.  The  results  are  shown  in 
Table  LXXIV. 


TABLE    LXXIV.  —  THE   BEST   PROPORTION    OP    TANKAGE    TO 
FEED  WITH  CORN  ON  BLUE-GRASS  AND  TIMOTHY  l 


AVERAGE 

AVERAGE 

CONCENTRATES 

RATIONS 

FORAGE 

NUMBER 

OF  PlGS 

FEED 
DAILY 

DAILY 
GAIN  PER 

REQUIRED  TO 
PRODUCE  100  LB. 

PER  PIG 

PIG 

GAIN 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

9  corn  and 

Blue-grass 

1  tankage 

and  timothy 

8 

4.71 

1.25 

375.3 

19  corn  and 

" 

1  tankage 

8 

4.62 

1.19 

389.4 

1  Cannichael  and  Ridgway :  Ohio  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  242. 


Methods  of  Feeding  on  Forage 


205 


The  green  feed  available  for  these  pigs  was  not  abun- 
dant at  any  time.  The  difference  in  the  rate  of  gain, 
and  the  amount  of  total  concentrated  feed  required  to 
produce  100  pounds  of  gain  in  the  two  lots  was  very 
small,  though  favoring  slightly  those  fed  the  larger 
proportion  of  tankage.  With  corn  figured  at  56  cents 
a  bushel  and  tankage  48  dollars  a  ton,  the  pigs  fed  the 
smaller  proportion  of  tankage  made  the  cheaper  gains. 
One  hundred  pounds  of  gain  on  the  10  per  cent  of  tankage 
ration  cost  $4.28,  while  on  the  5  per  cent  tankage  ration 
the  cost  was  only  $4.17,  a  difference  of  11  cents. 

Corn  alone  on  clover. 

At  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station  one  lot  of  pigs  on 
medium  red  clover  was  fed  a  ration  of  straight  corn, 
while  a  second  similar  lot  on  clover  was  given  corn  with 
10  per  cent  meat-meal  added.  The  experiment  began 
June  20  and  closed  November  10,  covering  a  period  of 
141  days.  The  pigs  were  given  full  rations  during  the 
last  85  days  only.  The  results  of  this  test  are  shown  in 
Table  LXXV. 

TABLE  LXXV.  —  CORN  ALONE  VERSUS    CORN   AND   TANKAGE 
FOR  PIGS  ON  CLOVER  l 


RATIONS 

FORAGE 

NUMBER 
OF  PIGS 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

CONCENTRATES 
FED  FOR  EACH 
100  LB.  GAIN 

Corn  alone 

Medium 
red  clover 

18 

Ib. 
39 

Ib. 
.84 

Ib. 

370.63 

9  Corn 
1  Tankage 

(i 

15 

39 

1.13 

334.10 

1  Eward,  Kildee,  and  Kennedy :  Iowa  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  136. 


206 


Pork  Production 


With  56-cent  corn  and  $40  a  ton  tankage,  the  cost  of 
producing  100  pounds  of  gain  would  be  practically  the 
same  on  the  two  rations.  The  more  rapid  gains  of  those 
fed  tankage,  however,  would  indicate  that  the  tankage 
feeding  would  be  profitable  when  an  early  finish  is  de- 
sirable. 

Oats,  Canadian  field  peas,  and  rape. 

Another  experiment  at  the  same  station  sought  to  de- 
termine the  best  proportion  of  meat-meal  to  feed  pigs 
while  grazing  a  forage  mixture  of  oats,  Canadian  field 
peas,  and  rape.  These  pigs  were  full  fed  during  the  last 
100  days  only,  although  receiving  liberal  rations  during 
the  first  60  days.  The  experiment  began  June  13  and 
lasted  160  days.  The  results  are  shown  in  Table  LXXVI. 

TABLE  LXXVI.  —  BEST  PROPORTION  OP  MEAT-MEAL  TO  FEED 
WITH  CORN  TO  PIGS  ON  A  MIXTURE  OP  OATS,  CANADIAN 
FIELD  PEAS,  AND  RAPE  l 


RATIONS 

FORAGE 

NUMBER 
OP  PIGS 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

CONCEN- 
TRATES 
FED  FOR 
EACH  100 
LB.  GAIN 

19  corn  and 
1  meat-meal  . 

Oats,  Cana- 
dian field 
peas,  and  rape 

21 

Ib. 
26 

Ib. 

1.15 

Ib. 

351.44 

9  corn  and 
1  meat-meal  . 

» 

21 

25 

1.16 

367.41 

In  this  experiment,  the  smaller  proportion  of  meat- 
meal  produced  the  cheaper  and  more  economical  gains, 
and  practically  as  rapid. 

1  Eward,  Kildee,  and  Kennedy :  Iowa  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  136. 


Methods  of  Feeding  on  Forage 


207 


General  summary. 

In  the  absence  of  more  definite  information  regarding 
the  best  proportion  of  nitrogenous  supplements  to  feed 
with  corn  or  other  similar  grains  under  different  con- 
ditions, the  following  general  summary  of  suggestions 
is  made  in  Table  LXXVII.  These  suggestions  are 
largely  based  on  the  foregoing  experimental  studies  and 
take  account  of  the  age  of  pigs,  the  composition  and 
quality  of  the  forage  crops,  and  whether  full  or  limited 
grain  rations  are  fed.  To  simplify  the  statement,  the 
proportion  of  protein  supplement  recommended  is  stated 
in  terms  of  tankage  or  meat-meal  containing  55  to  60 
per  cent  of  protein.  By  reference  to  Table  CXXII,  page 
279,  the  amount  of  shorts,  middlings,  linseed-oil  meal, 
and  the  like,  which  would  supply  approximately  the  same 
proportion  of  protein  in  the  ration,  can  be  determined. 

TABLE  LXXVII.  —  SHOWING  PROPORTION  OP  NITROGENOUS  SUP- 
PLEMENTS TO  FEED  WITH  CORN  TO  PIGS  ON  FORAGE 


FORAGE 

FOR  PIGS  WEIGHING  LESS 
THAN  100  POUNDS 

FOR  PIGS  WEIGHING  MORE 
THAN  100  POUNDS 

When  fed  full 
grain  rations 
for  rapid 
gains 

When  fed  lim- 
ited grain  ra- 
tions for  mod- 
erate gains 

When  fed  full 
grain  rations 
for  rapid 
gains 

When  fed  lim- 
ited grain  ra- 
tions for  mod- 
erate gains 

When  on  alfalfa,  clover, 
Canadian  field  peas, 
rape,  or  a  mixture  of 
any  of  these  with  oats 

5-10% 
Best     grade 
tankage  or 
meat-meal 

0-5% 
Best     grade 
tankage  or 
meat-meal 

0-5% 
Best     grade 
tankage  or 
meat-meal 

None 

When     on     blue-grass, 
timothy,     green     rye, 
oats,       sorghum,      or 
similar  forages 

8-12% 
Best     grade 
tankage  or 
meat-meal 

6-8% 
Best     grade 
tankage  or 
meat-meal 

6-8% 
Best     grade 
tankage  or 
meat-meal 

0-5% 
Best     grade 
tankage  or 
meat-meal 

When  on  fairly  mature 
soybeans,  cowpeas,  or 
peanuts 

None 

None 

None 

None 

208  Pork  Production 

It  will  be  noted  that  there  is  a  considerable  range  in  the 
proportion  of  supplement  recommended  for  a  given 
group  of  forages  and  for  pigs  of  a  given  weight  and  system 
of  feeding.  This  is  because  of  the  normal  variations 
which  occur  in  the  abundance  and  quality  of  forage 
supplied  by  a  given  crop  in  different  years,  as  well  as  the 
normal  differences  in  composition  which  exist  between 
the  forages  of  the  same  group.  It  frequently  happens 
that  the  crop  is  so  much  below  average  that  the  de- 
sired rate  of  gain  can  only  be  secured  by  a  larger  pro- 
portion of  supplement  even  than  the  maximum  figure 
recommended  in  the  table.  On  the  other  hand,  when 
the  forage  is  abundant  and  palatable,  the  smaller  pro- 
portions will  be  sufficient  because  of  the  larger  quantity 
of  the  protein-rich  forage  eaten. 

Another  reason  why  exact  quantities  cannot  be  stated 
is  because  of  the  variations  which  may  occur  from  year 
to  year  in  the  relation  of  the  price  of  corn  and  the  price 
of  supplements  in  general.  When  grain  is  cheap  and 
supplements  relatively  high,  a  smaller  proportion  of 
supplement  to  grain  will  be  more  profitable  than  when 
grain  is  high  and  the  commercial  supplements  cheap. 
When  barley,  rye,  wheat,  or  oats,  or  any  mixture  of  these 
is  fed,  a  slightly  smaller  proportion  of  the  protein  supple- 
ment is  required  than  when  corn  is  used. 

FEEDING   A   GRAIN   RATION   TO   PIGS   ON   FORAGE 

The  digestive  apparatus  of  the  pig  is  so  limited  in 
capacity  that  he  is  unable  to  make  even  moderate  gains 
on  green  forage  alone.  Pigs  weighing  less  than  100 
pounds  fail  to  maintain  their  weight  on  ordinary  pastures, 
especially  if  they  have  previously  been  fed  some  grain. 


Methods  of  Feeding  on  Forage  209 

Thrifty  growthy  shotes  weighing  100  pounds  or  more  will 
ordinarily  do  just  a  little  better  than  maintain  their 
weight  when  on  the  best  of  forages.  Thin  mature  sows 
will  hold  their  own  on  good  pasture  and  will  make  a  gain 
of  as  much  as  a  half  pound  daily  on  alfalfa,  clover,  or 
rape.  Much  depends,  however,  on  their  condition, 
previous  feeding,  and  the  quality  of  the  forage.  Al- 
though well-grown  thrifty  pigs  may  maintain  their 
weight  on  good  forages  alone  for  a  period  of  several 
months,  they  lose  condition,  take  on  a  rough  appearance, 
and  become  extremely  "pot-bellied"  in  appearance. 
They  apparently  grow  in  bone  and  stature,  but  lose  in 
weight  and  fat. 

The  problem  of  the  feeder,  however,  is  not  one  of  main- 
tenance but  of  production.  He  is  concerned,  not  with 
the  cost  of  maintaining  his  pigs  at  a  constant  weight, 
but  with  the  cost  of  producing  the  gains  which  will  insure 
market  finish  or  breeding  development.  An  important 
principle  to  remember  at  this  point  is  that  it  is  only  that 
part  of  the  ration  fed  above  maintenance  which  is  avail- 
able for  growth  or  fat  production.  In  the  production 
of  pork,  therefore,  the  returns  from  the  entire  ration  are 
determined  by  the  quantity  fed  in  excess  of  the  main- 
tenance requirements.  Some  grain  is  necessary  if  con- 
tinuous gains  are  made.  Just  how  much  grain  should  be 
fed  while  the  pigs  are  on  forage  in  order  to  insure  the 
greatest  economy  of  production,  all  factors  considered, 
is  the  question  to  which  we  will  now  give  our  attention. 

Pigs  intended  for  market 

In  the  production  of  market  pigs,  the  problem  of  decid- 
ing whether  full  or  limited  grain  feeding,  with  good  forages, 


210  Pork  Production 

is  the  most  suitable  and  profitable  for  a  given  farm  should 
first  be  considered  in  its  larger  aspect;  namely,  with 
reference  to  the  primary  purpose  for  which  the  hogs  are 
produced  and  the  general  system  of  feeding  which  best 
suits  the  plan  of  management  followed  for  the  farm  as 
a  whole.  This  phase  of  the  question  has  already  been 
discussed  in  the  earlier  pages  of  Chapter  VII. 

The  other  considerations  which  affect  the  problem 
more  directly  are  the  rate  and  cost  of  gains  during  the 
forage  season ;  the  rate  and  cost  of  gains  during  the 
dry  lot  feeding  period ;  the  proportion  of  old  and  new 
corn  used  in  full  as  against  limited  feeding  while  on  forage ; 
and  the  time  of  marketing  as  affected  by  limited  versus 
full  feeding  while  on  forage. 

Rate  and  cost  of  gains  during  forage  season. 

Most  of  the  experimental  work  done  to  help  solve  the 
question  of  whether  a  full  or  a  limited  ration  on  forage 
was  the  most  efficient  and  profitable  has  been  confined 
to  a  study  of  the  forage  period  only,  rather  than  for  the 
entire  period  from  weaning  to  the  time  market  weights 
had  been  attained.  Since  1904,  fifteen  separate  experi- 
ments l  of  this  kind  have  been  conducted  in  which  twenty- 
five  comparisons  of  limited  versus  full  grain  feeding  have 
been  made.  A  careful  study  of  the  results  furnished  by 
these  practical  tests,  considered  individually  and  col- 
lectively, supports  the  following  conclusions : 

(1)  The  more  liberal  the  grain  feeding,  the  faster  were 
the  gains.  Maximum  gains  were  made  only  when  full 

i  Neb.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  99 ;  Kans.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  192 ;  Ala. 
Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  147 ;  Iowa  Exp.  Sta.  Circ.  Letter ;  Ohio  Exp. 
Sta.  unpublished  data ;  111.  Exp.  Sta.,  Circ.  Letter ;  Ind.  Exp. 
Bta.,  unpublished  data. 


Methods  of  Feeding  on  Forage 


211 


rations  were  fed.     In  all  the  experiments  there  was  no 
exception  to  this  result. 

(2)  The  feeding  of  but  one-fourth  a  full  grain  ration 
secured  a  gain  of  as  much  as  \  pound  daily  only  when 
the  pigs  were  on  the  best  of  forage.  It  would  seem  that 
the  gains  made  on  limited  rations,  especially  when  fed 
one-half  full  feed  or  less,  are  more  largely  dependent  on 


GRAIN 

FIG.  9.  —  Relation  of  intensity  of  feeding  spring  pigs  on  forage  to  the 
rate  of  gain. 

the  quality  and  abundance  of  the  forage  than  are  the 
gains  made  by  pigs  fed  the  heavier  grain  allowances. 

A  summary  study  of  the  gains  made  in  these  experi- 
ments seemed  to  justify  the  expectation  that  good  spring 
pigs  on  first-class  forage  crops  will,  when  fed  limited 
rations,  make  gains  closely  approximating  those  in- 
dicated in  Fig.  9. 

(3)  With  respect  to  the  amount  of  grain  consumed  for 
each  100  pounds  of  gain  made  by  the  pigs  on  the  different 
rations,  a  survey  of  the  experimental  results  referred  to 


212 


Pork  Production 


above  indicated  that,  as  a  rule,  the  heavier  the  grain 
allowance  the  larger  was  the  grain  consumption  for  a 
unit  of  gain.  The  exceptions  to  this  rule  were  when  the 
pigs  were  fed  such  a  limited  ration  that  their  daily  gains 
were  less  than  f  pound,  and  in  other  cases,  when  the 
quality  or  abundance  of  the  forage  was  not  up  to  stand- 
ard. This  conclusion  is  expressed  graphically  in  Fig.  10, 
which  is  based  on  the  summarized  results  of  these  studies. 


u 

Itf 

<6 

25 

<s 

n 

j5 
o°S 


I  *-».  /  A.W. 

"RATE    OT  GAIM. 


\L  Lua. 

O??   Wore 


FIG.    10  —  Relation  of  the  rate  of  gain  made  by  pigs  on  forage  to  the 
amount  of  concentrates  required  for  each  one  hundred  pounds  gain. 

Rate  and  cost  of  gains  during  the  entire  feeding  period. 

It  is  not  possible  to  say  from  the  figures  just  considered 
which  is  more  profitable,  a  limited  or  a  full  grain  ration. 
This  is  true  because  pigs  fed  during  the  summer  on 
limited  rations  do  not  reach  marketable  weights  by  the 
end  of  the  forage  season,  in  consequence  of  which  there 
is  necessitated  a  longer  subsequent  period  of  dry  lot 
feeding  for  those  fed  the  restricted  rations.  Since  the 


Methods  of  Feeding  on  Forage 


213 


number  of  pounds  of  grain  required  to  produce  a  unit 
of  gain  is  greater  for  pigs  fed  in  the  dry  lot  and  at 
heavier  weights  than  for  pigs  on  forage  and  of  lighter 
weights,  it  is  necessary  to  feed  the  different  lots  to  the 
same  market  weight  before  a  reliable  comparison  can 
be  made. 

A  study  of  the  results  of  three  series  of  experiments 
recently  made  at  the  Iowa,  Illinois,  and  Indiana  stations,1 
together  with  the  results  of  experiments  covering  the 
forage  period  only,  indicate  that  we  may  expect  results 
under  the  average  of  good  farm  conditions  closely  approxi- 
mating those  shown  in  Table  LXXVIII. 

TABLE  LXXVIII.  —  RATE  OF  GAIN  AND  FEED  REQUIRED  FOR 
EACH  100  POUNDS  GAIN  DURING  FORAGE  AND  DRY  LOT 
PERIODS 


METHOD  OF 
FEEDING  ON 
FORAGE 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

ON 

FORAGE 

AVERAGE 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 
AT  END 

OF 

FORAGE 
PERIOD 

CONCEN- 
TRATES 
FOR  EACH 
100  LB. 
GAIN  ON 
FORAGE 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG, 
DRY  LOT 
PERIOD 

NUMBER 
DAYS 
DRY  LOT 
FEEDING 

CONCEN- 
TRATES 
FOR  EACH 
100  LB. 
GAIN 
ENTIRE 
PERIOD 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

days 

Ib. 

|  full  feed,  or 

1  %     weight 

daily       .     . 

.45 

95 

285 

1.25 

104 

505 

|  full  feed,  or 

2%     weight 

daily       .     . 

.65 

120 

295 

1.25 

84 

43^ 

I  full  feed,  or 

3%     weight 

daily       .     . 

.90 

150 

335 

1.25 

60 

400 

Full  feed    .     . 

1.25 

193 

365 

1.25 

26 

400 

1  Eward  and  Dunn,  Iowa  Exp.  Sta.,  Giro.  Letter ;  W.  J. 
Carmichael,  111.  Exp.  Sta.,  Circ.  Letter;  Skinner  and  Smith, 
Ind.  Exp.  Sta.,  unpublished  data. 


214 


Pork  Production 


In  Table  LXXIX  the  actual  amount  of  concentrates 
which  would  be  fed  in  the  forage  and  dry  lot  periods  is 
calculated  from  the  above  figures.  The  results  are  stated 
in  terms  of  shelled  corn  and  tankage,  and  assume  that 
the  latter  makes  up  8  per  cent  of  the  ration,  on  the  average. 

TABLE  LXXIX.  —  EFFECT  OF  LIMITED  VERSUS  FULL  FEEDING 
ON  FORAGE  ON  THE  TOTAL  AMOUNT  AND  PROPORTION  OF 
OLD  AND  NEW  CORN  REQUIRED  FROM  40  TO  225  POUNDS 
WEIGHT 


METHOD  OP  FEED- 
ING ON  FORAGE 

OLD  CORN  EATEN 
ON  FORAGE 

NEW  CORN  EATEN 
IN  DRY  LOT 

TOTAL 
BUSHELS 
SHELLED 
CORN 

TOTAL 
POUNDS 
NUM- 
BER 1 
TANKAGE 

Number 
bushels 

Per  Cent 
entire 
amount 

Number 
bushels 

Per  Cent 
entire 
amount 

i  full  feed,  or 
1  %    weight 
daily       .     . 

2.57 

17 

12.78 

83 

15.35 

75 

|  full  feed,  or 
2%    weight 
daily 

3.88 

29 

9.34 

71 

13.22 

64 

f  full  feed,  or 
3  %   weight 
daily       .     . 

6.05 

50 

6.11 

50 

12.16 

59 

Full  feed    .     . 

9.17 

75 

2.99 

25 

12.16 

59 

*The  above  table  serves  to  illustrate  the  important 
principle  that  as  the  intensity  of  grain  feeding  increases 
from  a  limited  to  a  full  ration  on  forage,  the  propor- 
tion of  old  to  new  corn  fed  increases.  In  other  words, 
full  rations  during  the  summer  on  forage  necessitate  a 
large  use  of  old  corn  and  permit  of  only  a  minimum 
use  of  the  cheaper  new  corn;  while  the  feeding  of 
limited  rations  during  the  summer  results  in  a  minimum 


Methods  of  Feeding  on  Forage 


215 


use  of  old  corn  and  a  maximum  use  of  new  corn.  Pigs 
farrowed  March  1st  will  ordinarily  reach  market  weights 
six  weeks  before  pigs  farrowed  April  1st.  With  the  best 
grade  of  pigs  and  abundant  forage,  even  April  pigs  will 
frequently  make  the  gains  which  will  enable  their  market- 
ing direct  from  the  forage  field. 

In  total  feed  consumed,  the  results  show  a  saving  of 
more  than  a    bushel  of  corn  for  each  pig  by  feeding  full 


•SZ 
SO 
48 


JAN.  Fee.  MAR.  AP*.  MAY  JUNE. JucrXloe.  SEPT.  OCT.  NOK  Dec 


FIG.  11.  —  Monthly  price  fluctuations  of  No.  2  corn  on  Chicago  market, 

1903-1914. 


or  three-fourths  full  rations  while  on  forage  than  when  a 
half  ration  or  less  was  given.  The  total  feed  consumed 
in  the  different  systems  of  feeding  does  not,  however, 
give  a  reliable  basis  for  the  determination  of  the  feed 
cost  of  production,  since  new  corn  is  cheaper  than 
old.  For  this  reason,  the  actual  cost  for  the  limited- 
fed  pigs  is  less  than  these  figures  by  themselves  would 
suggest. 


216  Pork  Production 

The  variation  in  the  price  of  corn  during  the  different 
months  of  the  year  is  shown  in  Fig.  11.  This  curve 
is  based  on  the  actual  price  of  standard  No.  2  corn  on  the 
Chicago  market  for  the  ten-year  period  from  1903  to  1914, 
inclusive.  According  to  this  curve,  the  average  forage- 
feeding  period  of  June  15  to  October  15  comes  when  the 
price  of  corn  is  high.  The  average  price  for  these  months 
was  61.6  cents  a  bushel,  while  for  the  immediate  succeeding 
four  months  it  was  55  j}  cents,  a  difference  of  6.1  cents 
a  bushel.  Actually  there  is  a  greater  spread  than  this 
on  the  farm,  because  the  feeding  of  new  corn  commences 
very  much  earlier  than  the  marketing  of  new  corn,  or 
before  its  presence  on  the  market  can  be  felt.  The  farm 
price  of  new  corn  for  November  and  December  is  probably 
lower,  therefore,  than  is  indicated  by  the  above  curve. 
The  actual  feed  cost  of  production  stated  in  dollars  and 
cents  would  be  less,  therefore,  for  the  pigs  fed  three- 
fourths  ration  while  on  forage  than  for  those  given  the 
full  rations. 

Time  of  marketing  as  affected  by  system  of  feeding. 

There  still  remains  an  additional  point  which  must 
be  noted.  Pigs  which  are  full  fed  on  forage  reach  market- 
able weight  earlier  than  do  limited-fed  pigs,  and  the  early 
market  is  usually  the  better  one.  For  the  twelve  years 
from  1905  to  1916,  the  average  price  of  hogs  on  the  Chicago 
market  in  September  and  October  was  approximately 
57  cents  a  hundred  higher  than  in  December  and  January. 
From  year  to  year,  the  pigs  fed  the  more  liberal  rations 
on  forage  have  the  advantage  of  selling  at  a  time  when 
the  supply  is  relatively  low  and  the  price  high  (see  Chapter 
XVI).  This  advantage,  however,  will  hold  only  so  long 
as  the  great  bulk  of  the  spring  pig  crop  is  marketed  in 


Methods  of  Feeding  on  Forage  217 

December  and  January  as  at  present.  According  to  the 
figures  in  the  above  table,  a  difference  in  selling  price  of 
only  7.6  cents  a  hundredweight  in  favor  of  the  full-fed 
pigs  as  compared  with  those  receiving  three-fourths 
rations  would  be  sufficient  to  make  up  for  the  difference 
between  them  in  the  cost  of  production. 

In  Fig.  12  are  shown  the  weight  curves  of  pigs 
from  birth  to  the  weight  of  225  pounds  when  fed  full  and 
limited  rations  on  forage.  The  attempt  is  here  made  to 
show  graphically  the  effect  of  different  systems  of  feeding 
during  the  summer  on  the  gains  in  weight  and  the  time 
of  marketing.  All  the  pigs  are  assumed  to  gain  1.25 
pounds  daily  during  the  dry  lot  periods. 

Summary  and  conclusions. 

The  feeding  of  limrted  grain  rations  to  pigs  on  forage 
during  the  summer  results  in  the  following  advantages: 
1.  Pigs  fed  a  limited  ration  make  a  minimum  use  of  ex- 
pensive old  corn  and  a  maximum  use  of  the  cheaper  new 
corn  in  producing  the  necessary  gains.  This  is  its  most 
important  advantage.  2.  The  amount  of  grain  required 
to  produce  a  unit  of  gain  while  the  pigs  are  on  forage  is 
usually  less  with  limited  than  with  full  rations.  3.  The 
feeding  of  limited  rations  during  the  summer  fits  in  well 
with  the  practice  of  hogging-down  corn  in  the  fall  and  is 
adapted  to  the  production  of  pigs  suitable  for  following 
cattle  during  the  winter. 

The  important  advantages  of  full  feeding  on  forage 
may  be  enumerated  as  follows:  1.  Pigs  fed  full  grain 
rations  on  forage  make  faster  gains  during  the  summer 
than  do  pigs  receiving  limited  rations.  In  consequence 
they  are  ready  for  an  earlier  market,  the  risks  from 
disease  and  other  sources  of  loss  are  reduced,  the  money 


218 


Pork  Production 


Methods  of  Feeding  on  Forage  219 

invested  in  the  pigs  is  made  available  sooner,  and  expense 
for  labor  and  winter  equipment  is  spared.  2.  The 
length  of  the  dry  lot  feeding  period  is  reduced  to  a  mini- 
mum when  full  grain  rations  are  fed  during  the  summer. 
Pigs  farrowed  in  February  and  March  may  be  marketed 
direct  from  the  forage  field.  3.  Less  total  concentrates 
are  required  in  the  production  of  a  225-pound  market 
pig  when  full  or  three-fourths  full  rations  are  fed  on 
forage  than  with  more  limited  rations.  Between  three- 
fourths  rations  on  forage  and  full  rations  there  seems  to 
be  no  consistent  difference.  When  the  forage  supply 
throughout  the  summer  is  excellent,  slightly  less  total 
concentrates  will  probably  be  required  with  three-fourths 
than  with  full  ration.  4.  Although  old  corn  is  more 
expensive  than  new,  under  normal  conditions  in  the  corn- 
belt  the  actual  money  cost  of  growing  and  fattening  a 
225-pound  market  pig  is  less  with  full  or  three-fourths 
rations  than  when  more  limited  grain  rations  are  fed. 
5.  An  important  advantage  for  the  method  of  full  feeding 
during  the  summer  arises  from  the  better  price  usually 
received  for  the  earlier  marketed  pigs. 

Considering  the  grain  cost  of  production,  the  time 
required  by  the  pigs  to  attain  market  weight,  and  the 
selling  price  as  affected  by  early  or  late  marketing,  the 
advantages  seem  to  lie  with  the  system  of  feeding  which 
supplies  either  full  or  three-fourths  grain  rations  while 
the  pigs  are  on  forage.  The  only  justification  for  the 
practice  of  feeding  less  than  three-fourths  rations  during 
the  summer  to  pigs  intended  for  direct  marketing  would 
seem  to  be,  therefore,  the  scarcity  or  abnormally  high 
price  of  corn  and  suitable  corn  substitutes. 

This  conclusion,  it  should  be  understood,  applies  only 
to  farm  conditions  in  which  the  pigs  are  produced  mainly 


220  Pork  Production 

for  the  purpose  of  marketing  corn.  Pigs  intended  for 
following  cattle  during  the  winter  ordinarily  should  not 
be  fed  full  rations  in  the  summer.  Also,  the  business  of 
producing  feeder  or  stocker  pigs  has  already  developed 
to  some  magnitude  in  localities  which  do  not  produce 
much  corn,  but  where  suitable  growing  feeds  are  available. 
Obviously  the  best  practice  for  such  conditions  is  to  feed 
only  the  amount  of  grain  which  will  promote  fair  gains 
and  maintain  thrift.  Such  conditions  usually  impose  the 
limited-feeding  system. 

Pigs  intended  for  the  breeding  herd 

In  the  feeding  of  market  pigs,  the  objects  are  economy 
and  rapidity  of  production.  In  the  feeding  of  pigs  intended 
for  the  breeding  herd,  the  primary  object  is  the  produc- 
tion of  a  strong  well-balanced  breeding  development,  with 
size.  Although  economy  of  production  is  essential  with 
breeding  as  with  market  pigs,  it  is  secondary  in  importance. 

Possible  dangers  from  full  feeding. 

The  question  of  whether  constitution  and  breeding 
development  are  better  promoted  by  full  feeding  on 
forage,  or  by  the  use  of  limited  grain  rations,  is  one  which 
practical  experience  must  be  largely  depended  on  to 
answer.  The  central  question  is  concerned  with  the 
dangers  which  may  attend  full  and  unlimited  grain  feed- 
ing, in  excessive  fatness,  "blind"  teats,  broken-down 
pasterns,  and  the  failure  to  develop  in  a  manner  to  insure 
reliable  breeding  traits  with  approaching  maturity. 

Conditions  which  affect  the  problem. 

Breeding  gilts  and  young  boars  may  be  injured  per- 
manently by  the  practice  of  feeding  full  grain  rations 


Methods  of  Feeding  on  Forage  221 

during  the  summer.  This  is  the  verdict  of  the  breeder 
who  has  been  a  careful  and  observant  feeder.  There 
are,  of  course,  exceptions  to  this  rule.  When  the  forage 
is  especially  abundant  and  of  good  quality,  and  when 
the  pigs  are  of  the  type  which  tend  more  to  growth  and 
late  maturity  than  to  fat  production  and  early  maturity, 
the  little  danger  which  may  attend  full  feeding  may  be 
overbalanced  by  the  advantages  resulting  from  larger 
size,  quicker  and  better  sales  of  the  pigs  in  the  fall,  or  a 
larger  and  more  attractive  appearance  at  maturity. 
When  the  grain  ration  fed,  also,  is  one  which  tends 
more  to  the  production  of  growth  than  the  formation 
of  fat,  and  when  considerable  quantities  of  bulky 
feeds  like  ground  oats,  chopped  alfalfa  hay,  or  wheat 
bran  are  fed,  the  probability  of  danger  is  still  further 
reduced. 

The  system  adopted  by  the  breeder,  then,  is  a  question 
of  judgment  based  on  a  careful  consideration  of  the  quality 
and  abundance  of  the  forage  available,  the  type  of  his 
pigs,  the  character  of  the  ration  which  he  determines  is 
best  and  most  economical  to  feed,  and  the  advantages 
which  may  come  from  good  size  and  development  at  an 
early  age.  In  addition,  constant  observation  during 
the  summer  must  be  depended  on  promptly  to  correct 
any  mistake  in  judgment  which  may  have  been  made  in 
the  system  of  feeding  previously  adopted. 

Summary  and  conclusion. 

A  safe  procedure  which  will  permit  good  growth  and 
maximum  breeding  development  is  suggested  by  the  fol- 
lowing recommendations  based  on  successful  practice : 

1.  WThen  full  grain  rations  are  fed,  or  when  the  self- 
feeder  is  employed,  it  is  essential  that  the  grains  be 


222  Pork  Production 

lightened  up  by  the  addition  of  some  bulky  feed  like 
ground  oats,  fine  quality  of  cut  alfalfa  or  clover  hay,  or 
wheat  bran.  The  proportion  of  these  feeds  should  be 
determined  and  frequently  regulated  according  to  the 
degree  of  fatness  of  the  pigs  and  the  amount  of  exercise 
which  they  are  taking.  To  avoid  the  evils  of  excessive 
fatness  and  inactivity,  constant  observation  is  required 
on  the  part  of  the  feeder. 

2.  Under  most  conditions,  best  results  can  probably 
be  secured  by  hand-feeding.     By  limiting  the  amount  of 
grain  to  no  more  than  three-fourths  as  much  as  will  be 
eaten  at  any  time,  or  a  little  less,  the  quantity  of  forage 
eaten  and  the  amount  of  rustling  done   can  be  more 
accurately  and  as  conveniently  regulated  by  hand-feeding 
as  when    the    self-feeder    is   depended   on.     With   two- 
thirds  to  three-fourths  full  rations  and  good  forage  crops, 
the  pigs  will  grow  fast  without  running  the  danger  of 
becoming  too  fat. 

3.  Breeding  pigs  which  are  to  be  shown  should,  of 
course,  be  pushed  from  the  start ;  but  most  of  the  pushing 
should  be  done  in  July  and  August  rather  than  in  May 
and  June.    The  financial  value  of  show  winnings  is  such 
that  the  pedigree  breeder  feels  justified  in  intensive  feed- 
ing even  though  the  future  breeding  value  of  the  gilt  or 
boar  is  jeopardized. 

4.  Young   boars   and   future   breeding   gilts   are   not 
injured  by  a  reasonable  amount  of  fat.     Thrifty  growthy 
pigs  are  never  thin.     Fine-boned  pigs  which  are  too  early 
disposed  to  fat  formation  are  not  the  kind  the  breeder 
should  raise.     Much  of  the  injury  assigned  to  excessive 
feeding  can  be  assigned  more  properly  to  a  wrong  ideal 
of  type  in  breeding. 


Methods  of  Feeding  on  Forage  223 

GENERAL  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  PIGS  IN  THE  SUMMER 

Sanitation. 

The  best  results  from  any  system  of  feeding  are  possible 
only  when  the  pigs  are  under  conditions  which  tend  to 
promote  health  and  thrift.  This  means  that  sanitary 
yards,  clean  drinking  water,  comfortable  quarters,  and 
a  reasonable  amount  of  exercise  must  be  provided.  The 
forage-crop  system  of  feeding  furnishes  the  conditions 
which  make  these  essentials  easy  of  attainment  on  the 
average  farm. 

The  pigs  must  be  kept  free  from  worms  and  lice  if 
health  is  maintained  and  every  pound  of  feed  eaten  is 
to  count  in  the  production  of  profitable  gains.  The 
health  of  the  pig  crop  must  also  be  guarded  by  reducing 
as  much  as  possible  the  dangers  of  cholera  infection. 
The  prompt  administration  of  the  serum  treatment 
(Dorset-Niles)  is  the  only  known  way  of  reducing  the 
loss  when  cholera  comes.  If  the  pigs  have  already  been 
rendered  permanently  immune  by  the  double  method  of 
treatment,  worry  of  possible  cholera  losses  may  cease 
(see  Chapter  XX). 

Ringing. 

Although  it  is  the  nature  of  a  hog  to  root,  his  disposi- 
tion toward  an  excessive  amount  can  be  curbed  by  the 
feeding  of  balanced  rations,  by  providing  a  constant 
supply  of  green  forage,  and  by  having  a  mixture  of  salt, 
ashes,  and  charcoal  constantly  available.  Under  ideal 
conditions  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  pigs  intended  for 
early  market  should  be  rung  at  all.  In  any  case,  it 
should  not  be  resorted  to  unless  necessary  to  save  valu- 
able sod.  Although  pigs  that  have  been  properly  rung 


224  Pork  Production 

suffer  little  inconvenience,  it  is  also  true  that  when  care- 
lessly performed  it  may  be  the  cause  of  much  annoyance 
or  even  suffering.  Sore  noses,  the  result  of  setting  the 
rings  too  deep,  or  the  use  of  rings  which  are  too  small, 
are  often  the  cause  for  the  failure  of  pigs  to  do  well  in 
the  feed  yard. 

The  morning  feed  of  the  pigs  should  be  reduced  materi- 
ally the  day  they  are  to  be  rung,  as  the  driving  and  ex- 
citement will  tend  to  "upset"  their  digestive  functions 
if  full  of  feed.  A  home-made  trap  which  catches  and 
holds  the  pigs  by  the  neck  is  a  very  practical  and  efficient 
method  of  securing  them.  This  should  be  placed  in  the 
doorway  of  a  pen  and  the  pigs  directed  to  it  with  hurdles, 
if  a  permanent  chute  is  not  a  part  of  the  equipment. 

One  ring  placed  in  the  center  of  the  upper  rim  will  be 
sufficient  ordinarily  for  shotes,  although  three,  one  in 
the  center  and  one  on  either  side,  are  frequently  neces- 
sary for  old  sows.  The  old-fashioned  ring  which  joins 
in  the  flesh  of  the  nose  is  objected  to  by  some  on  the 
ground  that  it  more  frequently  causes  excessive  soreness, 
than  the  so-called  fish-hook  ring.  A  criticism  sometimes 
made  of  the  latter,  however,  is  that  the  connection  of  the 
ring  offers  too  much  opportunity  for  the  accumulation  of 
mud  balls.  The  size  of  the  ring  should  be  such  that  when 
it  is  set  at  the  correct  depth  the  flesh  will  not  be  pinched 
or  drawn.  The  ring  should  enter  a  little  way  back  of 
the  cartilaginous  rim  of  the  snout. 

Shade  and  water. 

The  importance  of  shade  and  plenty  of  cool  water 
during  the  summer  is  such  as  to  warrant  more  attention 
than  it  usually  receives.  In  the  absence  of  natural 
shade,  artificial  shades  should  be  provided,  constructed 


Methods  of  Feeding  on  Forage 


225 


in  a  way  which  permits  the  free  passage  of  the  air  through 
them.  Raised  board  floors  will  be  cleaner  and  more 
free  from  dust  than  will  dirt  floors.  Individual  houses 
which  are  made  with  the  sides  hinged  at  the  top  so  that 
they  may  be  swung  open  make  good  summer  shelters. 
The  feeder  who  keeps  his  pigs  well  supplied  with  cool 
wrater  in  hot  weather  will  secure  gains  when  as  good  a 
feeder,  careless  about  this  point,  will  fail. 

FEED   COST   OF   RAISING   THE   PIG   TO   MARKET   WEIGHT 
OR   BREEDING   AGE 

In  the  following  tables  the  feed  cost  of  growing  and 
finishing  the  market  pig  and  of  developing  the  gilt  to 
breeding  age  is  calculated.  The  figures  are  based  on 
experimental  feeding  results  previously  considered  and 
assume  in  the  case  of  the  pigs  fed  on  forage  during  the 
summer  that  they  were  grazed  at  the  average  rate  of 
fifteen  to  the  acre. 


TABLE  LXXX.  —  COST  OF  FEEDING  WEANLING  PIG  TO 
MARKET  WEIGHT  (35  TO  225  POUNDS) 

I.    With  forage  crops  during  the  summer. 


TOTAL 

POUNDS  OF 

CONCEN- 
TRATES, OR 
NUMBER  OF 

TOTAL  COST  OF  CONCEN- 
TRATES 

TOTAL  FORAGE  CROP 
CHARGE 

TOTAL 
FEED 
COST 

FEED  UNITS 

REQUIRED 

at  1   ^per  Ib.  ..$  7.60 

at  $10  per  acre  $  .67 

$  8.27 

atl^perlb.  ..     9.50 

at  $10  per  acre      .67 

10.17 

760 

atl^perlb.  ..    11.40 

at  $12  per  acre      .80 

12.20 

atlf^perlb.  ..   13.30 

at  $12  per  acre      .80 

14.10 

at  2  ^perlb.  ..   15.20 

at  $14  per  acre      .92 

16.12 

at  2^  per  Ib.  .  .   19.00 

at  $15  per  acre    1.00 

20.00 

226 


Pork  Production 


TABLE   LXXX.  —  Continued 
II.   Under  dry  lot  conditions. 


TOTAL 
POUNDS  OF 
CONCEN- 
TRATES, OR 
NUMBER  OF 
FEED  UNITS 
REQUIRED 

TOTAL  FEED  COST 

$  8.93 

at  Ijff  per  Ib  

11.16 

893 

at  lf?<  per  Ib.          ..... 

13.39 

at  \H  per  Ib  

15.63 

at  2  ^  per  Ib 

17.86 

at  2|f<  per  Ib  

22.32 

TABLE    LXXXI.  —  FEED    COST    OF    RAISING    THE    BREEDING 
GILT  (35  POUNDS  TO  200  POUNDS) 

I.   With  forage  crops  during  the  summer. 


TOTAL 

TOTAL  COST  OF  CONCEN- 
TRATES 

TOTAL  FORAGE  CROP 
CHARGE 

POUNDS  OF 

CONCEN- 
TRATES, OR 
NUMBER  OF 

TOTAL 
FEED 
COST 

FEED  UNITS 

REQUIRED 

at  1   ^  per  Ib.  . 

.$  5.77 

at  $10  per  acre 

$  .67 

$  6.44 

at  H^perlb.  . 

.     7.21 

at  $10  per  acre 

.67 

7.88 

577 

at  l^perlb.  . 

.     8.65 

at  $12  per  acre 

.80 

9.45 

at  If^perlb.  . 

.    10.10 

at  $12  per  acre 

.80 

10.90 

at  2  t  per  Ib.  . 

.   11.54 

at  $14  per  acre 

.92 

12.46 

at  1\t  per  Ib.  . 

.   14.42 

at  $15  per  acre 

1.00 

15.42 

Methods  of  Feeding  on  Forage 


227 


TABLE  XXXI.  —  Continued 


II.   Under  dry  lot  conditions. 


TOTAL 
POUNDS  OF 
CONCEN- 
TRATES, OR 
NUMBER  OF 
FEED  UNITS 
REQUIRED 

TOTAL  FEED  COST 

at 

1   1  per  Ib  

$  6.80 

at 

ji^4  p@j«  }J3 

850 

680 

at 

1^-ff  per  Ib           

1020 

at 

Hi  per  Ib. 

11.90 

at 

2£  per  Ib 

13  60 

at 

2H  Der  Ib. 

17.00 

CHAPTER  X 

HOGGING-DOWN   CORN 

AT  one  time  "hogging-down"  corn  was  looked  on  by 
most  farmers  as  a  shiftless  wasteful  method  of  feeding; 
but  the  many  advantages  of  this  method  of  harvesting 
a  part  of  the  corn  crop,  as  well  as  the  good  results  in 
gains  made  by  the  hogs,  has  caused  the  practice  markedly 
to  increase  during  the  last  ten  or  fifteen  years.  The 
increasing  scarcity  of  labor  and  the  favorable  reports 
from  experimental  tests  have  largely  been  responsible 
for  a  change  in  attitude  among  those  farmers  who  formerly 
looked  on  the  practice  with  disfavor. 

VERSUS    YARD    FEEDING 

The  experimental  studies  at  the  Minnesota  and  Iowa 
Experiment  Stations *  have  demonstrated  that  pigs 
do  as  well,  and  a  little  better,  when  harvesting  their  own 
corn  as  when  the  corn  is  husked  in  the  usual  way  and 
fed  to  them  at  the  barn.  In  Table  LXXXII  are  the 
results  of  four  direct  comparisons  of  the  "hogging-down" 
and  the  common  yard,  or  dry  lot,  methods  of  feeding. 

In  the  two  Minnesota  experiments,  shorts  were  fed 
in  each  lot  at  the  rate  of  1  part  shorts  to  about  4  parts 
of  corn.  In  each  of  these  tests,  also,  the  pigs  eating 
the  standing  corn  had  rape  in  addition,  the  result  of 

iQaumnitz,  Wilson,  Bassett,  Minn.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  104. 
Eward,  Kennedy,  Kildee,  Iowa  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  143. 

228 


Hogging-down  Corn 


229 


broadcasting  in  the  corn  at  the  rate  of  3  pounds  of  seed 
to  the  acre  just  before  the  last  cultivation.  The  fact 
that  the  yard-fed  pigs  did  not  have  access  to  a  forage 
crop  would  naturally  tend  to  insure  more  rapid  and 
economical  gains  for  the  field-fed  pigs.  In  the  first  Iowa 
experiment,  no  supplement  was  fed  in  either  lot ;  in  the 
second,  sufficient  meat-meal  was  supplied  in  each  lot 
to  make  up  approximately  10  per  cent  of  the  gain  eaten. 

TABLE  LXXXII.  —  HOGGING-DOWN  CORN  VERSUS  YARD  FEED- 
ING (Minn,  and  Iowa  Experiment  Stations) 


METHOD  OF 
FEEDING 

AVERAGE  SUP- 
PLEMENT FED 
DAILY 

NUMBER  PIGS 
AND  AREA 
GRAZED 

NUM- 
BER 
DAYS 

AVER- 
AGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 

PER  PIG 

CONCENTRATES  l 
REQUIRED  FOR 
EACH  100  POUNDS 
GAIN 

Minn.  1905 
Yard  fed    .     . 

Hogging-down 

1  Ib.  shorts  per 
cwt. 
1  Ib.  shorts  per 
cwt. 

13  pigs 
26  pigs 
3  acres 

49 

49 

.98 
1.30 

831  corn2 
169  shorts 
696  corn  2 
139  shorts 

Minn.  1906 
Yard  fed    .     . 

Hogging-down 

1  Ib.  shorts  per 
cwt. 
1  Ib.  shorts  per 
cwt. 

8  pigs 
32  pigs 
3  acres 

51 
51 

1.09 
1.44 

573  corn 
146  shorts 
532  corn 
103  shorts 

Iowa,  1911 
Yard  fed    .     . 
Hogging-down 

None 
None 

10  pigs 
10  pigs 
TS  acre 

60 

76 

.62 
.42 

608.5  corn 
721.5  corn 

Yard  fed    .     . 
Hogging-down 

.51      Ib.     meat- 
meal  per  pig 
.51     Ib.     meat- 
meal  per  pig 

10  pigs 
10  pigs 
i9<j  acre 

60 
58 

1.17 
1.23 

356  corn 
41  meat-meal 
365.1  corn 
43.7  meat-meal 

Averages 
Yard  fed    .     . 

Hogging-down 

Total  41  pigs 

Total  78  pigs 
7/5  acres 

55 

58 

.965 
1.097 

389.21     concen- 
trates 
371.47     concen- 
trates 

1  Corn  was  figured  on  the  shelled  basis. 

2  Green  weight  of  corn,  not  shrunk. 


230 


Pork  Production 


No  forage  was  supplied  in  either  of  these  comparisons. 
The  pigs  in  the  first  Minnesota  experiment  averaged  147 
pounds,  and  in  the  second  125  pounds,  when  they  went 
into  the  experiments.  In  both  the  Iowa  tests,  the  pigs 
weighed  at  the  beginning  approximately  69  pounds.  The 
Minnesota  pigs  were  turned  in  November  29  and  9 
respectively  in  the  two  experiments,  and  the  Iowa  pigs, 
September  19. 

The  averaged  results  of  these  four  comparisons  show 
the  reliability  and  economy  of  the  hogging-down  system 
of  feeding  corn  when  well  managed.  With  but  one 
exception,  namely,  the  first  Iowa  experiment,  the  pigs 
harvesting  their  own  corn  gained  faster  than  did  those 
fed  in  the  usual  way.  In  this  comparison  no  supplement 
of  any  kind  was  fed.  The  authors  of  the  experiment 
attributed  the  exceptionally  poor  gains  made  in  this  lot 
to  the  fact  that  the  poor  appetites  of  the  pigs  made  it 
necessary  to  continue  them  in  the  field  until  December 
4th  to  get  them  to  clean  up,  at  which  time  the  weather 
had  become  bad  and  the  field  muddy. 

TABLE  LXXXIII.  —  EXPERIENCE  OF  177  FARMERS  WITH 
"  HOGGING-DOWN"  CORN  AS  COMPARED  WITH  DRY  LOT 
AND  PASTURE  FEEDING  l 


IN  HOGGING-DOWN  CORN  GAINS  ARE 

NUMBER  REPORT- 
ING 

PER  CENT  REPORT- 
ING ON  EACH  COM- 
PARISON 

More  rapid 

141 

79672 

More  economical      

105 

59.32 

But  little  different  

10 

5.65 

Less  rapid       

3 

1  69 

Less  economical 

1 

56 

1  Evvard,  Kennedy,  Kildee,  Iowa  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  143. 

2  Some  reported  on  more  than  one  comparison. 


Hogging-down  Corn  231 

As  shown  by  the  data  in  the  preceding  table,  the  expe- 
rience of  the  practical  feeder  coincides  with  the  results  of 
experiment  station  studies.  These  figures  were  obtained 
by  the  Iowa  Station  in  response  to  inquiries  addressed 
to  farmers  who  had  experience  with  the  hogging-down 
method  of  feeding. 

Granting  that  the  pigs  gain  as  rapidly  and  as  eco- 
nomically when  hogging-down  corn,  as  when  fed  from  the 
scoop  shovel  or  trough,  the  saving  in  labor  alone  would 
be  sufficient  to  guarantee  popularity  for  this  method. 
The  average  cost  of  husking  and  marketing  a  bushel  of 
corn  as  estimated  by  148  farmers  interviewed  by  the 
Iowa  Experiment  Station  was  8.81  cents.  The  cost 
of  husking  alone  is  now  8  to  10  cents  a  bushel. 

Other  important  advantages  to  which  practical  feeders 
testify  are  the  following :  Cribbing  space  is  saved ;  the 
hogs  develop  strong  constitutions  and  are  in  good  condi- 
tion for  following  cattle  or  for  a  short  finishing  feed  in 
the  dry  lot ;  the  droppings  are  left  where  they  will  do  the 
most  good,  which  insures  cleaner  yards  at  the  barn  and 
better  prospects  for  the  succeeding  crop;  and,  when 
hogging-down  is  practiced,  a  poor  stand  of  corn  may  be 
supplemented  most  advantageously  by  sowing  rape  or 
other  forage  crop  at  the  time  of  last  cultivation,  thus  insur- 
ing a  larger  return  in  pork  or  feed  from  a  given  area. 

SUPPLEMENTAL    FORAGE    CROPS 

In  order  that  satisfactory  results  may  be  obtained 
from  hogging-down  corn,  it  is  necessary  that  a  nitrogenous 
supplement  be  provided  either  in  the  form  of  a  commer- 
cial concentrate  or  a  forage  crop.  The  crop  may  be 
grown  in  with  the  corn  or  in  the  field  adjacent  to  it.  The 


232 


Pork  Production 


forages  most  highly  recommended  are  alfalfa,  clover, 
rape,  green  rye,  pumpkins,  soybeans,  and  cowpeas.  Ex- 
cepting alfalfa  and  clover,  these  crops  are  often  planted 
in  the  field  with  the  corn.  When  the  stand  of  corn  is 
good  and  the  rainfall  favorable,  a  good  yield  of  forage 
may  be  expected.  In  case  the  stand  of  corn  is  below 
average  and  weather  conditions  are  favorable  during 
the  growing  months,  the  yield  of  forage  should  be 
abundant. 


TABLE    LXXXIV.  —  SUPPLEMENTAL   FORAGES    FOR   HOGGING- 
DOWN  CORN  (Iowa  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  143) 


AVER- 

AVER- 

ESTI- 

PORK 

COMPARA' 

YEAH 

AGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 

AGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 

PER 

MATE 
YIELD 
OF  CORN 

PER 

PRO- 
DUCED 

BY 

ONE 

COST  OF 
GROWING 
CROPS  1 

TIVE 
COST2    OF 

PRODUC- 
ING 100 

PIGS 

PIG 

ACRE 

ACRE 

LBS.GAIN 

Ib. 

Ib. 

bu. 

Ib. 

Soybeans  forage 

1909 

82 

1.573 

619 

$14.48 

$2.34 

Cowpeas  forage 

1909 

82 

1.216 

504 

14.48 

2.87 

Rape  and  pump- 

kins       .     .     . 

1910 

92 

.931 

651.7 

12.15 

1.86 

Soybeans  forage 

1910 

92 

.828 

483.8 

14.48 

2.99 

Canada          field 

peas  forage 

1910 

50 

.706 

333.8 

14.75 

4.42 

Hairy  Vetch  for- 

age        ... 

1910 

93 

.418 

292.8 

17.15 

5.85 

None    .... 

1911 

69 

.420 

46.02 

357.2 

11.15 

3.14 

Meat-meal  10% 

1911 

69 

1.230 

50.53 

795.0 

19.32  3 

2.43 

Soybeans  forage 

1911 

68 

.840 

38.64 

504.4 

14.48 

2.87 

Green    rye     and 

10%        meat- 

meal       .     .     . 

1911 

69 

1.44 

42.69 

789.6 

21.203 

2.69 

1  Includes  cost  of  both  corn  and  forage. 

2  These  figures  determined  by  charging  the  corn  at  the  actual 
cost  of  production,  $11.15  an  acre,  rather  than  at  the  market 
price  of  the  grain  in  the  field. 

3  This  includes  the  cost  of  the  meat-meal  purchased. 


Hogging-down  Corn  233 

The  Iowa  Experiment  Station 1  has  done  some  use- 
ful work  along  the  line  of  determining  the  most  valu- 
able forages  to  grow  in  Iowa  cornfields  which  are  to  be 
hogged-down.  These  trials  were  conducted  during  the  fall 
of  1909,  1910,  and  1911.  In  1909  the  pigs  were  turned 
into  the  corn  on  September  14 ;  in  1910  on  September  9, 
excepting  the  lot  with  Canadian  field  peas  for  forage 
which  was  started  July  29 ;  and  in  1911  on  September  19. 
The  plan  was  to  turn  the  pigs  in  as  soon  as  the  corn  was 
well  dented.  The  pigs  on  the  Canadian  field  peas  in 
the  1910  experiment  were  started  at  the  unusual  date  of 
July  29  because  the  peas  were  ripe  at  that  time.  The 
various  lots  were  in  the  corn-fields  from  42  to  76  days. 
The  results  obtained  from  the  different  crops  are  shown 
in  the  preceding  table. 

These  results  are  interesting  as  well  as  instructive. 
In  the  1909  experiment,  soybeans  proved  themselves 
a  more  profitable  crop  than  cowpeas  as  shown  by  the 
rate  of  gain,  total  pork  produced  by  an  acre  of  corn  and 
forage,  and  the  cost  of  the  gains.  Of  the  forages  tested 
in  the  fall  of  1910,  rape  and  pumpkins  demonstrated  their 
superior  qualities.  This  crop  was  mostly  rape  since  an 
average  of  only  forty  pumpkins  were  produced  to  the 
acre.  The  pigs  in  this  lot  made  faster  and  cheaper 
gains  and  produced  considerably  more  pork  from  an 
acre  than  did  those  on  any  of  the  other  forages  tested. 
The  authors  say  concerning  the  merits  of  this  crop  :  "  Tak- 
ing everything  into  consideration  on  this  corn-rape- 
pumpkin  area,  —  the  high  yield  of  corn,  the  good  stand 
of  rape  with  a  few  pumpkins,  the  special  adaptability  of 
rape  as  a  supplement  to  corn,  the  palatability  of  both 
rape  and  pumpkins  combined  with  the  vermifugal  or 
1  Eward,  Kennedy,  and  Kildee,  Bull.  143. 


234  Pork  Production 

worm-expelling  properties  of  the  pumpkin  seed,  and 
the  succulence  of  the  two  crops,  —  the  reasons  for  the 
superiority  of  this  combination  are  clear."  Soybeans  gave 
good  results  again  in  1919,  but  the  returns  from  the 
Canadian  fields  pea  and  the  hairy  vetch  were  not  a  credit 
to  these  crops.  The  fact  that  Canadian  field  peas  are 
a  cool  weather  crop,  requiring  a  very  short  growing 
season,  makes  it  ill-adapted  for  planting  in  corn.  The 
yield  of  vetch  was  luxurious,  but  the  unpalatable  nature 
of  the  plant  for  hogs  resulted  in  insufficient  consump- 
tion for  good  gains,  and  the  heavy  yield  materially 
reduced  the  supply  of  moisture  and  plant-food  avail- 
able for  the  corn.  The  authors  of  the  experiment  con- 
sidered hairy  vetch  an  utter  failure  for  "hogging-down" 
purposes. 

In  1911  four  fields  of  corn  were  again  "hogged-down," 
two  of  which  only  contained  forages.  Soybeans  were 
grown  in  one  and  rye  in  the  other.  The  results  were 
very  much  in  favor  of  the  green  rye  when  supplemented 
by  the  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  meat-meal.  The 
large  amount  of  pork  produced  by  an  acre  of  the  corn  and 
rye  forage  was  in  part  the  result  of  the  smaller  yield  of 
corn  in  the  lot  containing  the  soybeans.  The  pigs  receiv- 
ing no  supplement,  either  in  the  form  of  a  forage  or  a 
concentrate,  made  extremely  unsatisfactory  gains.  The 
lot  which  received  approximately  10  per  cent  as  much 
meat-meal  daily  as  it  ate  of  corn  gained  nearly  three 
times  as  rapidly,  and  from  the  same  area  of  corn  pro- 
duced more  than  double  the  quantity  of  pork.  It  is 
apparently  just  as  necessary  properly  to  supplement 
standing  corn  as  it  is  corn  fed  in  the  ordinary  way.  The 
effect  of  growing  the  forage  in  with  the  corn  on  the  yield 
of  corn  is  also  suggested  by  these  results. 


Hogging-down  Corn 


235 


The  method  and  rate  of  planting,  and  the  actual  cost 
of  growing  the  forage  crops  tested  in  these  experiments, 
are  shown  in  the  following  table : 

TABLE  LXXXV.  —  ACRE  COST  OF  GROWING  FORAGE  SUPPLE- 
MENTS * 


SUPPLEMEN- 
TARY CROPS 

YEAR 
USED 

WHEN  PLANTED 

RATE  OF 
SEEDING, 
LB. 

CROP  CHARGES 

Seed 

Seeding 

Total 

Dwarf  Essex 

1910 

Last  cultiva- 

rape 

tion 

3 

$.24 

$.16 

$.40 

Rape  and 

1910 

Rape,  last 

pumpkins 

cultivation, 

3 

R.  .24 

.41 

1.00 

pumpkins 

1 

P.   .35 

after  corn 

was  up 

Winter  rye 

1911 

Drilled  in 

after  last 

136.5 

2.73 

.60 

3.33 

cultivation 

Soybeans 

1909 

Drilled,  corn- 

1910 

planting 

45.5 

2.73 

.60 

3.33 

1911 

time 

Cowpeas 

1909 

Drilled,  corn- 

1910 

planting 

45.5 

2.73 

.60 

3.33 

time 

Canadian 

1910 

Drilled,  corn- 

field  peas 

planting 

60. 

3.00 

.60 

3.60 

time 

Hairy  vetch 

1910 

Drilled,  corn- 

planting 

45. 

5.40 

.60 

6.00 

time 

The  best  forage  crop  to  grow  for  supplementing  corn 
which  is  to  be  hogged-off  must  be  decided  by  each  feeder 
for  himself  after  considering  his  general  scheme  of  manage- 
ment and  the  forages  of  proved  value  best  adapted  to  his 
soil  and  climate.  For  sowing  in  corn,  the  above  experi- 
ments give  rape  and  rye  high  valuations  for  conditions 
similar  to  those  of  central  Iowa.  Farther  south  soybeans 
1  Iowa  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  143. 


236  Pork  Production 

and  cowpeas  will  undoubtedly  give  better  results  than 
in  these  trials. 

Whether  or  not  it  is  better  to  grow  the  forage  in  with 
the  corn  or  adjacent  to  it,  is  a  point  undetermined.  Much 
depends  on  the  particular  conditions.  A  well-balanced 
rotation  for  the  farm  will  ordinarily  provide  sufficient 
clover  or  other  legume  to  make  seeding  in  with  the  corn 
unnecessary. 

FIELD  MANAGEMENT 

Pigs  which  have  been  receiving  all  the  grain  they  will 
eat  should  be  accustomed  gradually  to  new  corn  and  full 
feeding  before  they  are  turned  into  the  standing  corn. 
This  is  especially  true  if  much  of  the  corn  is  down  and 
the  pigs  are  well  grown.  Ordinarily,  the  corn  should  be 
well  dented  before  hogging-down  begins. 

Well-grown  shotes  farrowed  in  the  spring  are  best 
adapted  to  this  method  of  feeding,  and  they  will  gain 
faster  and  clean  up  the  corn  more  thoroughly  if  they  are 
not  fat  when  turned  in.  Gilts  intended  for  the  breeding 
herd  should  be  watched  closely  and  removed  before  there 
is  evidence  of  over-fatness.  Brood  sows  which  are  not 
nursing  fall  pigs  may  be  used  to  advantage  for  cleaning 
up  after  the  shotes,  or  for  breaking  down  the  corn  for 
pigs  which  are  too  light  to  do  this  for  themselves.  They 
should  not,  however,  be  allowed  to  become  so  heavy  that 
their  breeding  qualities  are  impaired. 

The  acreage  of  corn  to  set  aside  for  hogging-off  will  be 
determined  chiefly  by  the  number  and  size  of  the  pigs  and 
the  yield  of  the  corn.  No  larger  area  should  be  planned 
than  can  be  thoroughly  eaten  before  the  bad  weather  of 
early  winter  sets  in.  This  will  mean  a  grazing  period  of 
fifty  to  sixty  days  on  the  average.  Some  farmers  believe 


Hogging-down  Corn 


237 


in  limiting  the  area  grazed  at  one  time  so  that  each  field 
is  cleaned  up  in  fifteen  to  twenty  days.  Although  this 
means  more  labor  and  expense  for  fencing,  experience 
favors  the  method,  especially  when  the  season  is  wet  and 
the  soil  sticky.  In  a  dry  fall,  there  is  thought  to  be  little 
gained  by  confining  the  pigs  to  limited  areas  for  short 
periods.  Twenty-six-inch  woven  wire  set  on  light  posts 
which  may  be  driven  two  rods  apart  will  usually  be  the 
most  economical  and  satisfactory  method  of  temporarily 
fencing  the  areas  used. 

The  following  table  l  gives  the  approximate  number  of 
days  required  to  hog-off  an  acre  of  corn  by  a  given  num- 
ber of  125-pound  pigs. 

TABLE  LXXXVI.  —  SHOWING  THE  APPROXIMATE  NUMBER  OF 
DAYS  REQUIRED  TO  HOG-OFF  AN  ACRE  OF  CORN  BY  A  GIVEN 
NUMBER  OF  PIGS  WEIGHING  125  POUNDS 


WITH  CORN  SHRUNK  TO   JAN.   1  AND  YIELDING 

NUMBER  OF 

AVERAGE 
WEIGHTS 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

55 

60 

65 

70 

PIGS 

OP  PIG 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

per 

per 

per 

per 

per 

per 

per 

per 

per 

Acre 

Acre 

Acre 

Acre 

Acre 

Acre 

Acre 

Acre 

Acre 

Will  keep  10 

Ib. 

days 

days 

days 

days 

days 

days 

days 

days 

days 

pigs      .     . 

125 

22.5 

26.2 

30 

33.7 

37.5 

41.2 

45.0 

48.7 

52.5 

Will  keep  20 

pigs      .     . 

125 

11.2 

13.1 

15 

16.8 

18.7 

20.6 

22.5 

24.3 

26.2 

Will  keep  30 

pigs      .      . 

125 

7.5 

8.7 

10 

11.2 

12.5 

13.7 

15.0 

16.2 

17.5 

Will  keep  40 

pigs      .      . 

125 

5.6 

6.5 

7.5 

8.4 

9.3 

10.3 

11.2 

13.2 

14.1 

Will  keep  50 

pigs      .     . 

125 

4.5 

5.2 

6.0 

6.7 

7.5 

8.2 

9.0 

9.7 

10.5 

Will  keep  60 

pigs      .      . 

125 

3.7 

4.4 

5.0 

5.6 

6.2 

6.8 

7.5 

8.1 

8.7 

Will  keep  70 

pigs      .     . 

125 

3.2 

3.7 

4.3 

4.8 

5.3 

5.8 

6.4 

6.9 

7.5 

Will  keep  80 

pigs      .     . 

125 

2.8 

3.3 

3.7 

4.2 

4.6 

5.1 

5.6 

6.1 

6.5 

1  Gaumnitz,  Wilson,  and  Bassett,  Bull.  104,  Minn.  Exp.  Sta. 


238 


Pork  Production 


The  carrying  capacity  of  an  acre  of  corn  as  given  by 
the  Iowa  Experiment  Station  1  is  somewhat  greater  than 
that  estimated  above,  as  shown  in  the  following  table : 


TABLE   LXXXVII.  —  CARRYING    CAPACITY    OF    AN   ACRE    OP 
STANDING  CORN 

Average  weight  of  pigs  at  the  beginning,  125-150  Ib. 


BUSHELS  TO 
THE  ACRE 

30  DAYS 

60  DAYS 

90  DAYS 

120  DAYS 

40 

14-15 

6-7 

4-5 

3 

50 

18-19 

8-9 

5-6 

4 

60 

21-22 

10-11 

6-7 

4-5 

70 

26-27 

12-13 

7-8 

5-6 

In  order  that  the  pigs  make  satisfactory  gains,  they 
must  be  supplied  with  water  that  is  pure  and  easily 
accessible.  Portable  sanitary  watering  devices  are  espe- 
cially convenient  when  the  field  is  not  within  easy  distance 
of  the  barn.  Also,  the  pigs  must  have  a  comfortable 
place  to  sleep  in  order  to  do  well.  With  no  protection, 
a  chilly  rain  in  the  late  fall  will  undo  a  week's  feeding. 
Movable  cots  or  temporarily  constructed  sheds  may  be 
provided  at  little  expense  of  time  or  labor.  Although 
a  labor  saver,  the  hogging-down  method  of  feeding 
requires  that  constant  attention  be  given  to  the  essentials 
of  good  care  and  management  if  best  results  are  to  be 
obtained. 


1  Eward,  Kennedy,  and  Kildee,  Iowa  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  143. 


CHAPTER  XI 

FATTENING  PIGS  IN  THE  DRY  LOT  (THE 
USE  OF  NITROGENOUS  OR  PROTEIN  SUP- 
PLEMENTS) 

BEFORE  the  pig  crop  is  ready  for  market,  a  more  or  less 
extensive  period  of  dry  lot  feeding  is  usually  necessary. 
Early  spring  pigs  which  have  been  liberally  fed  during 
the  summer  on  good  forage  crops,  or  those  which  have 
"  hogged-down "  corn  until  December,  usually  have  the 
weight  and  condition  which  make  a  long  feed  unnecessary. 
Pigs  which  have  been  farrowed  late,  on  the  other  hand, 
and  have  received  little  grain  during  the  summer,  require 
a  rather  extended  period  of  dry  lot  feeding  before  attain- 
ing the  weight  and  finish  desired  by  the  market.  The 
average  spring  pig  does  not  reach  market  until  December 
or  January,  which  means  a  feeding  period  of  sixty  to 
ninety  days. 

One  of  the  easiest  classes  of  live-stock  on  the  farm  to 
feed  successfully  is  the  well-known  pig  which  is  being 
fattened  for  market.  The  problem  of  accomplishing  this 
most  economically  is  rendered  complex  only  by  the  great 
variety  of  feeds  available  and  the  variations  which  occur 
from  year  to  year  in  the  price  of  these  feeds. 

The  most  profitable  ration  to  feed  in  any  year  should  be 
determined  ordinarily  by  the  supply  and  price  of  home- 
grown grains  and  the  availability  and  cost  of  the  different 
nitrogenous  or  protein  supplements  on  the  market. 
Usually,  although  not  always,  corn  or  some  other  home- 

239 


240  Pork  Production 

grown  grain  should  be  used  as  the  basis  of  the  fattening 
ration.  Although  these  dry-lot  fed  pigs  have  the  age 
which  makes  their  requirements  for  protein  and  mineral 
matter  less  than  during  the  summer,  their  demands  for 
growing  constituents  are  nevertheless  greater  than  can 
be  supplied  by  corn  or  any  other  grain  alone.  A  ration 
that  is  both  cheap  and  balanced  is  necessary  to  insure 
economical  gains  and  a  quick  market  finish. 

In  dry  lot  feeding,  the  supply  of  protein  with  which  to 
balance  the  home-grown  grains  must  be  obtained  largely 
in  the  form  of  commercial  by-products,  known  generally 
as  nitrogenous  or  protein  supplements.  Owing  to  the 
increasing  use  of  grain  for  human  consumption  and  the 
higher  prices  for  pork  products,  these  feeds  have  assumed 
a  position  of  much  greater  importance  than  formerly 
when  prices  were  lower.  The  necessity  of  feeding  a 
supplement  with  the  grains  has  been  determined  by 
numerous  experimental  studies  at  the  state  experiment 
stations,  as  well  as  by  the  accumulated  experiences  of 
practical  feeders. 

DAIRY   BY-PRODUCTS 

The  by-products  of  the  dairy  are  more  highly  prized 
by  hog-men  than  perhaps  any  other  form  of  protein 
supplement.  The  value  of  skim-milk  and  buttermilk 
is  such  as  to  make  pork  production  a  valuable  adjunct 
to  profitable  dairying  when  either  of  these  products  are 
available  for  swine  feeding.  Although  100  pounds  of 
skim-milk  or  buttermilk  contain  less  than  10  pounds  of 
dry  matter,  this  latter  is  so  rich  in  easily  digested  proteins 
and  mineral  constituents  of  the  kinds  needed  as  to  make 
them  unusually  efficient  as  means  of  balancing  the  grains. 


Fattening  Pigs  in  the  Dry  Lot 


241 


In  the  table  below  are  summarized  the  results  of  seven 
feeding  experiments  in  which  rations  of  corn  and  skim- 
milk  or  buttermilk  were  compared  with  rations  of  corn 
alone.  In  two  of  the  experiments,  those  at  South  Dakota 
and  Ohio,  the  pigs  in  both  lots  had  access  to  a  blue-grass 
pasture,  which  resulted  in  a  better  showing  for  the  lots 
fed  corn  alone  than  would  have  been  the  case  if  they  had 
been  confined  to  dry  lots.  In  the  other  five,  all  lots  were 
fed  in  dry  yards.  These  results  represent  work  from 
seven  different  stations  and  involved  the  use  of  a  total  of 
106  pigs  averaging  a  little  over  100  pounds  when  the 
experiments  began. 

TABLE  LXXXVIII.  —  SUMMARY  :    CORN   ALONE  VERSUS  CORN 
AND  SKIM-MILK  OR  BUTTERMILK*  (Av.  7  Exps.) 


AVERAGE  DAILY 
RATION 

TOTAL 
NUMBER 
OF  PIGS 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
FINAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

FEED  TO  PRODUCE 
100  LB.  GAIN 

5.09  corn 

53 

ft. 

106.42 

Ib. 

184.61 

Ib. 

1.04 

Ib. 

492.88  corn 

5.09  corn 
12.  58  buttermilk 
and  skim-milk 

53 

108.38 

229.46 

1.66 

302.07  corn 
799.  40  buttermilk 
and  skim-milk 

The  sum  total  of  this  evidence  as  expressed  in  the 
summary  table  gives  to  skim-milk  and  buttermilk 
unusually  high  valuations.  The  fifty-three  pigs  which 
received  either  skim-milk  or  buttermilk  with  their  corn 
gained  59.61  per  cent  faster  than  did  those  receiving  corn 
alone.  This  was  sufficient  to  effect  a  saving  of  36  days 

1  Ind.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  137 ;  S.  Dak.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  136 ;  Dem. 
Exp.  St.  Joseph  Stock  Yds.  Co. ;  Ohio  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  209  ; 
Neb.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  107;  N.  H.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  113;  Tex.  Exp. 
Sta.  Bull.  131. 


242  Pork  Production 

in  the  time  required  to  produce  100  pounds  of  gain.  The 
average  weight  at  the  close  of  the  experiments  was  229 
pounds  for  those  fed  skim-milk  or  buttermilk,  and  184 
pounds  for  those  fed  corn  alone.  To  have  made  the 
latter  as  heavy  when  sold  as  those  fed  the  milk  rations, 
it  would  have  been  necessary  to  have  continued  them 
on  feed  43  days  after  the  experiments  closed. 

Not  only  were  the  gains  faster  for  those  fed  milk,  but 
they  were  also  cheaper.  The  feeding  of  799.4  pounds  of 
buttermilk  or  skim-milk  resulted  in  a  saving  of  190.81 
pounds  of  corn;  or  in  other  words,  4.18  pounds  of  milk 
had  the  equivalent  value  of  1  pound  of  corn.  On  the  basis, 
then,  of  the  average  result  of  these  seven  experiments,  the 
value  of  skim-milk  or  buttermilk  in  reducing  the  cost  of 
gains  when  corn  alone  is  fed  would  be  as  shown  in  the 
following  table : 


TABLE  LXXXIX.  —  MONEY  VALUE  OP  SKIM-MILK  OR  BUTTER- 
MILK WHEN  FED  WITH  CORN  TO  FATTENING  PIGS 


When  a  bushel  of  corn  is  worth 
100    pounds  of  skim-milk    or 
buttermilk  are  worth   .    .     . 

r* 

29.9* 

35.9* 

41.9* 

$1.12 

47.8* 

$1.26 
53.8* 

$1.40 
59.8* 

$1.54 

71.8* 

$1.68 

77.7* 

According  to  these  valuations,  therefore,  the  price  of 
a  bushel  of  corn  divided  by  2.34  will  give  the  value  of  100 
pounds  of  skim-milk  or  buttermilk  when  fed  under  these 
conditions. 

These  values,  it  should  be  understood,  are  based  entirely 
on  the  saving  of  corn  required  to  produce  a  given  gain. 
They  do  not  include  the  important  additional  advantage 
of  more  rapid  gains  and  the  earlier  market  finish  which  also 
resulted  from  their  use.  On  the  other  hand,  these  figures 
do  not  mean  that  the  feeder  can  necessarily  afford  to  pay 


Fattening  Pigs  in  the  Dry  Lot 


243 


these  prices  for  skim-milk  or  buttermilk,  since  it  might 
be  possible  for  him  to  balance  his  corn  more  cheaply 
by  the  purchase  of  a  protein  supplement  in  some  other 
form.  He  can  afford  to  pay  these  prices  only  when  there 
is  no  cheaper  source  of  protein  available. 

In  the  average  ration  above,  2.47  pounds  of  skim-milk 
or  buttermilk  were  fed  with  each  pound  of  corn.  If 
a  larger  proportion  had  been  used,  the  value  of  the  milk 
would  have  been  less  than  is  shown  by  these  figures. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  less  than  2.47  pounds  of  milk  had 
been  fed  with  each  pound  of  corn,  a  larger  credit  and  a 
higher  valuation  would  have  resulted. 

This  principle  is  illustrated  by  the  results  of  feeding 
trials  conducted  by  Henry  1  at  the  Wisconsin  Experiment 
Station.  In  these  experiments  a  total  of  88  pigs,  averag- 
ing a  little  more  than  100  pounds  at  the  beginning,  were 
used,  with  the  results  shown  in  the  following  table : 

TABLE  XC.  —  SKIM-MILK  AND  CORN-MEAL  REQUIRED  FOR  100 
POUNDS  OF  GAIN  BY  PIGS 


PROPORTION  OF  SKIM-MILK  TO  CORN-MEAL 

FEED  TO 
PRODUCE 
100  LB.  GAIN 

MILK  TO 
REPLACE  2 
100  LB.  CORN 

1#  corn  with  1  to  3  Ib.  milk  .     .     . 

Ib. 

321  corn 
585  milk 

Ib. 

327 

1#  corn  with  3  to  5  Ib.  milk  .     .     . 

265  corn 
1048  milk 

446 

1#  corn  with  5  to  7  Ib.  milk  .     .     . 

250  corn 
1434  milk 

574 

1#  corn  with  7  to  9  Ib.  milk  .     .     . 

207  corn 
1616  milk 

552 

1  Wis.  Rpt.  1895 ;  Henry  and  Morrison's  "  Feeds  and  Feeding." 

2  Figured  on  the  basis  that  500  Ib.  of  corn  alone  would  have 
been  required  to  produce  100  Ib.  of  gain. 


244 


Pork  Production 


The  smaller  the  proportion  of  milk  fed  with  the  corn, 
the  greater  was  its  value  a  pound. 

From  2  to  3  pounds  of  milk  to  1  pound  of  corn  are 
required  to  make  the  ration  balanced  and  most  pro- 
ductive of  rapid  gains  for  growing  and  fattening  pigs. 
However,  when  the  supply  of  milk  is  abundant  and  cheap, 
a  larger  proportion  than  3  to  1  will  often  be  profitable, 
especially  when  grain  is  scarce  and  high  in  price.  When 
the  supply  of  milk  is  limited,  however,  smaller  proportions 
will  be  necessary  and  will  give,  as  a  rule,  the  most  eco- 
nomical results,  especially  when  grain  is  abundant  and 
relatively  cheap. 

Buttermilk  versus  skim-milk. 

As  indicated  by  the  following  table  showing  the  average 
composition  of  buttermilk  and  skim-milk,  one  would 
expect  them  to  be  equally  efficient  as  supplements  to  the 
ordinary  grains  in  pig  feeding. 

TABLE  XCI.  —  COMPOSITION  OF  BUTTERMILK  AND  SKIM-MILK  1 


DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIMENTS  IN 

TOTAL  DRY 
MATTER  IN 
100  LB. 

100  LB. 

NUTRITIVE 
RATIO  * 

Proteins 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fats 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Buttermilk     .     . 

9.4 

3.4 

4.9 

0.1 

1:1.5 

Skim-milk      .     . 

9.9 

3.6 

5.1 

0.2 

1:1.5 

Buttermilk  is,  as  a  rule,  more  variable  in  composition 
and  feeding  value  than  is  skim-milk,  due  to  the  fact  that 

1  Appendix,  Henry  and  Morrison's  "  Feeds  and  Feeding." 

2  Determined  by  dividing  the  digestible  carbohydrates  plus 
2£  times  the  digestible  fats,  by  the  digestible  proteins. 


Fattening  Pigs  in  the  Dry  Lot 


245 


considerable  wash  water  is  often  incorporated  with  it. 
The  average  of  all  tests,  however,  indicates  that  they 
are  of  quite  equal  feeding  value.  This  is  illustrated  by 
two  trials  conducted  by  Wilson  at  the  South  Dakota 
Experiment  Station,  the  average  results  of  which  are 
shown  in  Table  XCII. 


TABLE  XCII.  —  BUTTERMILK  VERSUS  SKIM-MILK  FOR  FATTEN- 
ING PlGS1 


AVERAGE 

AVERAGE 

AVERAGE 

RATIONS  FED 

NUMBER 
PIGS 

INITIAL 
WEIGHT 

FINAL 
WEIGHT 

DAILY 
GAIN 

FEED  TO  PRODUCE 
100  POUNDS  GAIN 

PER  PIG 

PER  PIG 

PER  PIG 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Corn  + 

315  corn 

buttermilk 

12 

92.5 

195.5 

1.66 

864  buttermilk 

Corn  + 

312  corn 

skim-milk 

12 

92.0 

193.5 

1.65 

859  skim-milk 

Skim-milk  and  buttermilk  versus  other  supplements. 

The  feeding  value  of  skim-milk  was  compared  with  that 
of  other  standard  protein  supplements  in  two  experiments 
conducted  at  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station  by  Skinner 
and  Cochel.  The  proportion  of  supplement  fed  in  each 
lot  was  such  as  to  make  all  rations  equally  balanced,  or 
to  give  them  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1 :  7.4.  There  were  five 
pigs  in  each  lot  in  the  first  experiment,  and  six  in  the 
second.  The  results  are  shown  in  Table  XCIII. 

In  both  experiments  skim-milk  proved  to  be  the  most 
efficient  and  profitable  supplement  with  which  to  balance 
corn.  In  each  case  the  gains  were  faster  and  the  cost  of 
producing  100  pounds  of  gain  cheaper  than  with  any  of 

1  S.  Dak.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  136. 


246 


Pork  Production 


the  other  feeds.  The  gains  in  the  second  experiment 
were  not  as  satisfactory  as  in  the  first  because  of  the 
excessive  heat  in  July  and  also  because  the  pigs  in  this 
experiment  had  been  fed  more  liberal  grain  rations  pre- 
vious to  the  test. 

TABLE  XCIII.  —  SKIM-MILK  VERSUS  OTHER  PROTEIN  SUPPLE- 
MENTS FOR  FATTENING  PIGS  * 

I.  —  Apr.  10-June  9,  1909  —  60  days 


AVERAGE 

AVERAGE 

AVERAGE 

COST  OF 

RATIONS 

INITIAL 
WEIGHT 

FINAL 

WEIGHT 

DAILY 
GAIN 

FEED  TO  PRODUCE 
100  LB.  GAIN 

PRODUCING 
100  LB. 

PER  PIG 

PER  PIG 

PER  PIG 

GAIN  2 

ft. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

8  corn-meal  + 

333.4  corn 

1  linseed-oil  meal 

112.4 

217.4 

1.75 

4  1.6  linseed-oil  meal 

$3.63 

7  corn-meal  + 

321.13  corn 

1  soybean  meal 

113.8 

223.2 

1.82 

45.87  soybean  meal 

$3.57 

15  corn-meal  -f- 

359.07  corn 

1  tankage 

116.6 

226.8 

1.83 

23.93  tankage 

$3.71 

1  corn-meal  + 

180.50  corn 

1  middlings 

115.4 

234.0 

1.97 

180.50  middlings 

$3.88 

1  corn-meal  + 

297  corn 

li  skim-milk 

113.6 

235.2 

2.02 

445  skim-milk 

$3.56 

II.  —  June  19-Aug.  18,  1908  —  60  days 


8  corn-meal  + 

400  corn 

1  soybean  meal 

105.6 

160 

.90 

50  soybean  meal 

$6.16 

8  corn-meal  -f- 

414  corn 

1  linseed-oil  meal 

106.0 

165 

.98 

51  linseed-oil  meal 

$6.36 

1  corn-meal  + 

267  corn 

1$  skim-milk 

105.5 

211.6 

1.76 

400  skim-milk 

$4.60 

1  Ind.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  137. 

2  Prices  charged  for  feeds  were  as  follows :     I.  —  corn-meal, 
$18  a  ton ;    linseed-oil  meal  and  soybean  meal,  $30  a  ton ;    tank- 
age, $40  a  ton ;  middlings,  $25  a  ton ;  skim-milk,  20  cents  a  hun- 
dredweight.    II.  —  corn-meal,  80  cents  a  bushel ;  linseed-oil  meal 
and  soybean  meal,  $30  a  ton ;   skim-milk,  25  cents  a  hundred- 
weight. 


Fattening  Pigs  in  the  Dry  Lot 


247 


At  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station,1  two  series  of  experi- 
ments were  conducted  for  the  purpose  of  comparing 
skim-milk  and  tankage  as  supplements  to  corn,  and  of 
determining  the  best  proportion  of  skim-milk  to  feed  with 
corn.  Both  trials  were  under  dry  Jot  conditions.  In  the 
lots  where  the  corn  and  skim-milk  were  fed,  ad  libitum, 
the  corn  was  given  twice  daily  and  the  skim-milk  three 
times.  With  each  feed  they  were  given  all  they  would 
take  in  two  hours.  The  results  of  the  two  trials  ara 
averaged  and  appear  in  Table  XCIV. 

TABLE  XCIV.  —  DIFFERENT  PROPORTIONS  OF  SKIM-MILK  WITH 
CORN  FOR  FATTENING  PIGS  (Av.  2  Exps.) 


RATIONS, 
PROPORTIONS 
BY  WEIGHT 

TOTAL 

NUM- 
BER 
PIGS 

AVERAGE 
LENGTH 

OP 

EXPERI- 
MENTS 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE  FEED 
EATEN  FOR  EACH 
100  LB.  GAIN 

9  corn 
1  tankage 

10 

days 

87 

Ib, 

50 

Ib. 
.864 

Ib. 
369  corn 
41  tankage 

1  corn 
1  skim-milk 

10 

87 

52 

1.058 

326  corn 
326  skim-milk 

1  corn 
3  skim-milk 

10 

87 

51 

1.176 

261  corn 
789  skim-milk 

1  corn 
5  skim-milk 

10 

87 

50 

1.299 

226  corn 
1128  skim-milk 

Corn  and  skim- 
milk       (both 
ad  lib.) 

10 

87 

51 

1.573 

185  corn 
1445  skim-milk 

In  each  experiment  the  lots  fed  the  skim-milk  made 
considerably   faster  gains  than  those  fed  the  tankage. 


1  Robison,  Bull.  316. 


248 


Pork  Production 


The  larger  the  proportion  of  skim-milk  given,  also,  the 
more  rapid  were  the  gains,  but  the  value  of  the  skim-milk 
in  reducing  the  amount  of  corn  required  to  produce  100 
pounds  of  gain  was  greatest  when  the  smaller  proportions 
were  fed  (see  Table  XC,  page  243).  With  an  abun- 
dant and  cheap  supply  of  skim-milk  available,  it  would 
be  profitable  to  feed  the  larger  proportions. 

Skim-milk  or  buttermilk  versus  tankage. 

Summarizing  the  results  from  all  the  experiments  in 
which  skim-milk  or  buttermilk  were  compared  with 
tankage  for  fattening  pigs,  the  average  results  are  stated 
in  Table  XCV. 


TABLE  XCV.  —  SUMMARY  :  SKIM-MILK  OR  BUTTERMILK  VER- 
SUS TANKAGE  AS  A  SUPPLEMENT  TO  CORN  FOR  FATTENING 
PIGS  (Av.  8  Exps.) 


AVERAGE  RATION,  PROPORTIONS 
BY  WEIGHT 

AVERAGE 
DAILY  GAIN 
PER  PIG 

FEED  EATEN  FOR  EACH 
100  POUNDS  GAIN 

10.6  corn 
1   tankage 

Ib. 

1.202 

Ib. 
378.38  corn 
35.74  tankage 

1  corn 
2.6  skim-milk  or  butter- 
milk 

1.518 

287.20  corn 
753.25  skim-milk  or  but- 
termilk 

According  to  these  averages,  753.25  pounds  of  skim- 
milk  or  buttermilk  replaced  or  were  equivalent  to  91.18 
pounds  of  corn  and  35.74  pounds  of  tankage.  As  based 
on  the  amount  of  feed  required  to  produce  100  pounds  of 
gain,  then,  skim-milk  and  tankage  would  have  the  relative 
values  shown  in  Table  XCVI. 


Fattening  Pigs  in  the  Dry  Lot 


249 


TABLE   XCVI.  —  VALUE    OF   SKIM-MILK   OR   BUTTERMILK 
AFFECTED  BY  THE  PRICE  OF  CORN  AND  TANKAGE 


AS 


When  corn  and  tank- 
age cost  .... 

Corn  56^ 
per  bushel 
Tankage 
$40  per 
ton 

Corn  70f< 
per  bushel 
Tankage 
$50  per 
ton 

Corn  84«f 
per  bushel 
Tankage 
$60  per 
ton 

Corn  98f< 
per  bushel 
Tankage 
$70  per 
ton 

Corn  $1.40 
per  bushel 
Tankage 
$100  per 
ton 

Skim-milk  or  butter- 
milk is  worth  .  . 

21.6f$  per 
cwt. 

27.0  i  per 
cwt. 

32  .4  i  per 

cwt. 

37.8  i  per 
cwt. 

54.0?i  per 
cwt. 

These  figures  mean  that,  with  the  above  ratio  of 
prices  between  corn  and  tankage,  the  value  of  skim-milk 
or  buttermilk  was  10.8  per  cent  of  that  of  tankage.  Or, 
stated  in  another  way,  100  pounds  of  skim-milk  or  butter- 
milk was  worth  54  per  cent  of  the  value  of  a  ton  of  tankage 
divided  by  100. 

The  above  valuations  of  skim-milk  and  buttermilk  are 
wholly  determined  by  the  saving  effected  in  the  feed 
required  to  produce  a  unit  of  gain.  They  do  not  include 
a  valuation  of  the  26  per  cent  faster  gains  made  on  the 
rations  containing  the  dairy  products.  For  this  reason, 
therefore,  skim-milk  and  buttermilk  have  somewhat 
higher  values  than  shown  by  these  figures. 

All  the  experiments  with  fattening  pigs  in  the  dry  lot 
tend  to  show  the  feeding  value  of  skim-milk  and  butter- 
milk to  be  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  amount  of  dry 
matter  which  they  furnish.  The  great  merit  of  these 
two  products  must  be  assumed  to  lie,  therefore,  in  the 
kind  or  quality  of  the  proteins  and  mineral  compounds 
rather  than  in  their  amounts.  Their  palatability  and 
digestibility  contribute  also  to  their  efficiency. 

Whey. 

As  shown  in  Table  XCVII,  whey  is  even  more  watery 
in  composition  than  skim-milk  or  buttermilk.  Further- 


250 


Pork  Production 


more,  the  dry  matter  which  it  does  carry  contains  con- 
siderably less  protein.  A  pound  of  skim-milk  furnishes 
on  the  average  more  than  four  times  as  much  protein 
as  an  equal  amount  of  whey.  Due  to  the  differences 
in  methods  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  cheese,  whey 
is  quite  variable  in  composition  and  value. 

TABLE    XCVII.  —  COMPOSITION    OF    WHEY    COMPARED    WITH 
SKIM-MILK  l 


TOTAL  DRY 
MATTER  IN 
100  LB. 

DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  IN  100  LB. 

NUTRITIVE 
RATIO 

Proteins 

Carbohydrates 

Fats 

Skim-milk 

9.9 

3.6 

5.1 

02 

1:1.5 

Whey  .     . 

6.6 

0.8 

4.7 

03 

1:6.8 

Day  of  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College  conducted  two 
experiments  in  which  sweet  and  sour  whey,  with  meal, 
was  compared  with  meal  alone.  The  averaged  results 
of  these  two  trials  are  shown  in  Table  XCVIII.  Two 
pounds  of  whey  were  fed  with  1  pound  of  meal,  which 
was  made  up  of  shorts,  barley,  and  wheat  or  peas. 

TABLE  XCVIII.  —  WHEY  AND  MEAL  VERSUS  MEAL  ALONE  2 


RATIONS 

AVERAGE  DAILY 
GAIN  PER  PIG 

FEED  TO  PRODUCE 
100  LB.  GAIN 

Meal  alone      

Ib. 

1.43 

Ib. 

493.5  meal 

Meal  +  sweet  whey     .... 

1.76 

381     meal 
860     whey 

Meal  -f-  sour  whey  

1.78 

382  5  meal 

818.5  whey 

1  Appendix,  Henry  and  Morrison's  "Feeds  and  Feeding." 

2  Ont.  Agr.  Coll.  Rpt.,  1896. 


Fattening  Pigs  in  the  Dry  Lot  251 

The  pigs  fed  whey  gained  faster  and  required  less  meal 
for  a  given  gain  than  did  those  given  the  meal  mixture 
alone.  The  results  also  show  that  sour  whey  was  as 
valuable  as  sweet. 

The  quantity  of  whey  required  to  replace  1  pound  of 
concentrates  in  the  production  of  gains  with  fattening 
pigs  has  been  determined  by  Day  1  at  the  Ontario  Agri- 
cultural College  and  Henry  2  at  the  Wisconsin  Experiment 
Station.  The  figure  obtained  at  the  Ontario  Station  is 
the  average  result  of  three  trials  in  which  2j  to  6  pounds 
of  whey  were  fed  with  each  pound  of  a  meal  mixture 
containing  50  per  cent  of  shorts.  The  result  at  the 
Wisconsin  station  is  the  average  of  ten  trials  in  which 
2  to  10  pounds  of  whey  were  fed  with  each  pound  of 
combination  of  equal  parts  corn-meal  and  shorts.  At 
the  Ontario  Station,  9.88  pounds  of  whey  were  required 
to  replace  1  pound  of  meal.  At  the  Wisconsin  Station, 
7.58  pounds  of  whey  were  required  to  replace  1  pound 
of  meal. 

The  whey  used  in  the  Wisconsin  trials  was  reported  to 
contain  more  than  the  average  percentage  of  butter-fat, 
which  accounts  for  its  higher  value.  As  reported  by 
Henry  and  Morrison,3  pig-feeding  experiments  conducted 
at  the  Copenhagen,  Denmark,  Experiment  Station  give 
12  pounds  of  whey  the  value  of  1  pound  of  mixed  grain. 
Since  4.18  pounds  of  skim-milk  or  buttermilk  was  shown 
to  be  equivalent  to  1  pound  of  corn,  it  would  seem  that 
whey  has  less  than  one-half  the  feeding  value  of  skim- 
milk  or  buttermilk. 

Two  experiments  by  Day  with  fattening  pigs,  covering 
periods  of  104  and  90  days,  showed  that  ordinary  whey 

1  Ont.  Agr.  Coll.  Rpt.,  1909.  2  Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Rpt.,  1891. 

3  "Feeds  and  Feeding." 


252  Pork  Production 

is  on  the  average  33  per  cent  more  valuable  than  separated 
whey.  The  same  experimenter  also  proved  that  pas- 
teurized whey  was  equal  to  ordinary  whey  in  feeding  value. 
Due  to  the  fact  that  whey  is  not  so  rich  in  protein  as 
skim-milk  or  buttermilk,  it  is  not  so  effective  in  balancing 
corn.  The  best  results  from  feeding  whey  are  obtained, 
therefore,  when  it  is  combined  with  a  meal  or  grain 
mixture  containing  more  protein  than  corn  alone. 

Precautions  in  feeding  dairy  products. 

Although  sour  skim-milk  is  as  valuable  as  sweet,  except 
for  very  young  pigs,  it  is  important  when  feeding  it  in 
this  condition  that  its  degree  of  sourness  or  acidity  be 
as  uniform  as  possible  from  day  to  day.  Feeding  milk 
which  is  nearly  sweet  one  day  and  clabber  the  next  is 
a  common  cause  of  scours,  which  mean  a  halt  in  the  gains 
and  a  waste  of  feed.  Also,  very  much  better  results  may 
be  expected  when  the  milk  is  supplied  daily  at  regular 
intervals  and  in  uniform  amounts.  In  feeding  dairy 
products,  it  is  essential  for  best  results  that  special  meas- 
ures be  taken  to  keep  the  pails,  cans,  and  other  receptacles 
thoroughly  clean.  Sour,  filthy  utensils,  especially  when 
combined  with  careless  irregular  methods  of  feeding,  may 
counteract  entirely  the  beneficial  effects  of  the  feeds 
themselves. 

Dairy  by-products  should  in  all  cases  be  subjected  to 
a  high  temperature  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to  kill 
all  disease  germs  before  being  fed.  In  case  it  is  not 
required  by  law,  it  should  be  insisted  on  by  the  indi- 
vidual feeders  when  the  creamery  or  cheese  factory  is 
patronized.  This  process,  known  as  pasteurization,1 
is  especially  necessary  to  guard  against  tuberculosis  in 
1 150°  F.  for  twenty  minutes,  or  185°  F.  for  less  time. 


Fattening  Pigs  in  the  Dry  Lot  253 

the  pigs  fed  milk  coming  from  infected  herds.  Although 
the  disease,  when  present,  rarely  develops  to  the  stage 
where  detection  is  possible  in  the  live  animal,  inspection 
after  slaughter  may  result  in  the  condemnation  of  the 
carcass  in  whole  or  in  part. 

At  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station,1  80  pigs  were  divided 
into  two  equal  lots  and  fed  for  a  period  of  196  days  rations 
of  grain  and  skim-milk.  Lot  I  was  fed  skim-milk  con- 
taining virulent  bacilli  of  tuberculosis  artificially  added 
and  lot  II  an  equal  quantity  which  had  been  pasteurized 
at  a  temperature  of  200°  F.  At  the  end  of  the  test,  both 
lots  of  pigs  appeared  equally  healthy,  although  those 
receiving  the  clean  milk  gained  a  little  faster  than  those 
getting  the  tubercular  milk.  The  results  of  the  post 
mortem  inspection,  however,  were  as  follows :  Of  the  40 
head  fed  tubercular  skim-milk,  all  were  affected  with 
tuberculosis;  of  the  40  head  receiving  the  pasteurized 
skim-milk,  only  two  were  infected.  In  the  first  lot  30  per 
cent  of  the  carcasses  only  were  fit  for  human  consumption, 
45  per  cent  were  fit  only  for  lard,  and  45  per  cent  were 
entirely  unfit  for  food  or  the  making  of  food  products. 

This  practical  test  demonstrated  conclusively  that  pigs 
fed  skim-milk  containing  the  germs  of  tuberculosis  may 
in  a  relatively  short  time  develop  the  disease  sufficiently 
to  necessitate  condemnation  of  the  carcass  for  food. 

Out  of  a  total  of  7,343,746  hogs  slaughtered  under 
Government  inspection  at  the  Chicago  market  in  1916, 
24,526,  or  .33  per  cent,  were  condemned  for  tuberculosis 
as  inedible.2  It  is  the  general  claim  of  packers  that 
nearly  1  per  cent  of  all  hogs  killed  are  condemned  in  whole 

1  Kennedy,  Bobbins,  Bouska,  Bull.  92. 

2  H.  R.  Smith,  Live-stock  Commissioner,  Chicago  Live-stock 
Exchange. 


254  Pork  Production 

or  in  part  because  of  this  disease,  and,  further,  that  the 
greatest  loss  is  among  hogs  coming  from  the  more  highly 
developed  dairy  districts.  With  the  present  method  of 
sale,  this  loss  is  borne  by  the  packer,  who  has  no  direct 
way  of  protecting  himself. 

The  seriousness  of  tuberculosis  is  so  threatening  to  the 
live-stock  interests  as  a  whole,  as  well  as  to  human  health, 
that  the  hog-raiser  is  under  special  obligation  to  do  his 
part  in  helping  to  control  or  permanently  eradicate  the 
disease.  He  can  cooperate  in  this  campaign  by  refusing 
to  feed  unpasteurized  milk  coming  from  untested  herds. 

PACKING-HOUSE   BY-PRODUCTS 

Next  to  skim-milk  and  buttermilk,  the  by-products 
of  the  slaughter-  and  packing-house  have  come  to  be 
regarded  by  swine-men  as  of  special  value  and  efficiency. 
These  include  tankage  or  meat-meal,  blood-meal  or  dried 
blood,  and  various  combinations  of  meat  scrap  and  bone. 
In  the  table  on  the  following  page  is  shown  the  average 
composition  of  the  more  common  feeds  of  this  class. 

These  products  as  a  class  are  characterized  by  the 
absence  of  carbohydrates  and  by  extreme  richness  in 
protein  and  mineral  matter.  Compared  with  corn, 
they  are  the  very  opposite  in  composition. 

Digester  tankage,  usually  sold  under  the  name  of 
feeding  tankage,  tankage,  or  meat-meal,  is  the  most  exten- 
sively employed  of  any  of  these  products.  It  largely 
represents  the  residue  of  the  grease  tanks  plus  varying 
amounts  of  blood,  meat,  bone,  and  the  residue  from 
evaporated  tank  water.  This  material  is  thoroughly 
cooked  in  large  tanks  under  high  steam  pressure,  after 
which  the  water  and  grease  are  drawn  off  and  the  remain- 


Fattening  Pigs  in  the  Dry  Lot 


255 


ing  contents  subjected  to  hydraulic  pressure,  then  dried 
and  finely  ground.  As  manufactured  by  well-equipped 
plants,  feeding  or  digester  tankage  is  a  high-grade  product 
very  uniform  in  feeding  qualities,  and  not  to  be  confused 
with  fertilizer  tankage.  Feeding  tankage  manufactured 
at  small  slaughtering  establishments  and  serum  plants  is 
often  less  uniform  in  comparison,  owing  largely  to  the 
varying  degree  of  thoroughness  with  which  the  fat  or 
oil  has  been  removed. 


TABLE  XCIX.  —  COMPOSITION  OP  MEAT  AND  BONE 
PRODUCTS  l 


FEED 

TOTAL  DRY 
MATTER  IN 
100  LB. 

TOTAL  DIGESTIBLE 
NUTRIENTS  IN  100  LB. 

ASH 

NUTRI- 
TIVE 
RATIO 

Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates 

Fats 

Tankage  over  60% 

protein     .     .     . 

92.6 

58.7 

12.6 

10.5 

1:0.5 

Tankage  55-60% 

protein     .     .     . 

92.5 

54.0 

12.7 

13.6 

1:0.5 

Tankage  45-55% 

protein     .     .     . 

92.5 

48.1 

13.7 

19.7 

1  :  0.6 

Tankage         below 

45%  protein 

93.5 

37.6 

16.7 

22.6 

1:  1.0 

Dried  blood     .     . 

90.3 

69.1 

0.9 

3.3 

1  :  0.03 

Meat-  and   bone- 

meal    .... 

94.0 

37.0 

11.0 

36.8 

1  :  0.7 

Meat-  and   bone- 

meal    .... 

93.4 

30.9 

9.8 

45.8 

1:0.7 

Pork  cracklings    . 

95.0 

52.4 

32.6 

2.3 

1:  1.4 

Corn        .... 

89.5 

7.5 

67.8 

4.6 

1.5 

1  :  10.4 

Due  to  the  fact,  that  tankage  is  cooked  under  40  pounds 
steam  pressure  for  several  hours,  it  is  to  be  considered 
a  strictly  sterile  product  free  from  disease  germs  when  it 
comes  from  the  factory.  Being  dried  to  an  8  per  cent 

1  Appendix,  Henry  and  Morrison's  "Feeds  and  Feeding." 


256 


Pork  Production 


moisture  basis  reduces,  also,  the  chances  of  contamination 
later.  The  uncooked  by-products  from  slaughterhouses 
are  to  be  regarded,  on  the  other  hand,  as  highly  dangerous. 

Corn  alone  versus  corn  and  tankage. 

Probably  no  protein  feed  on  the  market  has  been  as 
extensively  studied  as  has  tankage.  In  Table  C  are 
summarized  the  results  of  fifteen  individual  feeding  experi- 
ments conducted  at  six  different  experiment  stations. 
Each  experiment  reported  was  a  test  of  a  combination 
of  corn  and  tankage  against  corn  alone  when  fed  in  the 
dry  lot  to  pigs  averaging  approximately  138  pounds 
when  the  experiments  began.  In  practically  all  the  tests, 
so-called  number  one  tankage,  containing  from  55  to  60 
per  cent  of  protein,  was  used. 

TABLE  C.  —  SUMMARY  :    CORN   ALONE   VERSUS   CORN   AND 
TANKAGE  OR  MEAT-MEAL  1     (Av.  15  Exps.) 


AVERAGE  DAILY 
RATION  PER  PIG 

TOTAL 
NUMBER 
PIGS 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
FINAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

FEED  EATEN  FOR 
EACH  100  LB.  GAIN 

5.94  corn    .     . 

109 

Ib. 

136.7 

Ib. 

215.8 

Ib. 
1.115 

Ib. 

545.9  corn 

6.54  corn    . 
.705  tank,  or 
meat-meal 

160 

138.7 

262.1 

1.740 

380.2  corn 
40.2  tank,  or 
meat-meal 

The  deficiency  of  a  ration  of  corn  alone  was  emphati- 
cally shown  by  the  result  of  every  one  of  these  practical 
feeding  tests.  The  results  in  both  rate  and  cost  of 
gain  show  up  in  strong  contrast  when  compared  with  the 
balanced  combination  of  corn  and  tankage. 

1  Ind  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  137 ;  Iowa  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  91 ;  Neb.  Exp. 
Sta.  BuU.  147 ;  Mo.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  65 ;  Kans.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull. 
192 ;  Ohio  Exp.  Sta.  BuU.  209. 


Fattening  Pigs  in  the  Dry  Lot 


257 


The  averaged  results  as  given  in  the  summary  table 
show  that  the  pigs  fed  corn  and  tankage  gained  more 
than  56  per  cent  faster  than  did  those  fed  corn  alone, 
and  were  46  pounds  heavier  at  the  close  of  the  average 
feeding  period.  The  fact  that  the  pigs  fed  corn  and 
tankage  ate  1.3  pounds  of  feed  daily  in  excess  of  that 
consumed  when  corn  alone  was  fed,  testifies  to  the  palata- 
bility  of  this  feed. 

Not  only  were  the  gains  faster,  but  they  were  also  made 
on  less  feed.  The  feeding  of  40.21  pounds  of  tankage 
had  the  effect  of  saving  an  average  of  165.74  pounds  of 
corn.  In  other  words,  as  fed  in  these  experiments, 
1  pound  of  tankage  in  the  balanced  ration  had  the  value 
of  4.12  pounds  of  corn  in  the  ration  of  corn  alone.  This 
does  not  include  the  credit  due  the  tankage  for  the  faster 
gains  and  earlier  market  finish,  but  is  based  alone  on  the 
saving  of  corn  effected  in  the  production  of  a  given  gain. 
The  money  value  of  tankage  in  reducing  the  cost  of 
gains,  then,  when  fed  under  the  average  conditions  repre- 
sented in  these  experiments,  would  be  as  given  in  the 
following  table : 

TABLE  CI.  —  MONEY  VALUE  OF  TANKAGE  OR  MEAT-MEAL  WHEN 
FED  WITH  CORN  TO  FATTENING  PIGS 


When  a  bushel  of 

corn  is  worth  . 

56jf 

70£ 

84^ 

98  £ 

$1.26 

$1.40 

A  ton  of  tankage 

is  worth      .     . 

$82.40 

$103 

$123.60 

$144.20 

$185.40 

$206 

If  no  other  supplements  were  available,  the  feeder 
could  afford  to  pay  these  extreme  prices  for  the  best 
grade  of  tankage  rather  than  feed  corn  alone.  With  the 


258 


Pork  Production 


competition  of  other  forms  of  protein  supplements  on  the 
market,  however,  it  is  not  necessary  nor  wise  to  pay  these 
prices.  The  price  one  can  afford  to  pay  must  be  deter- 
mined by  the  relative  value  of  tankage  and  other  suitable 
supplements.  The  most  direct  and  satisfactory  way  of 
making  this  comparison  is  by  the  aid  of  the  carefully 
conducted  practical  feeding  experiment. 

Tankage  versus  linseed-oil  meal. 

Direct  comparison  of  tankage  and  linseed-oil  meal 
(old  process)  for  finishing  pigs  in  the  dry  lot  has  been 
made  in  eight  recent  experiments.  In  each  test  the  pigs 
were  fed  to  market  weights,  which  required  an  average  of 
74  days'  feeding.  The  summarized  results  of  these 
studies  are  shown  in  Table  GIL 

TABLE  CII.  —  SUMMARY  :  TANKAGE  VERSUS  LINSEED-OIL  MEAL 

(Av.  8  Exps.)  l 


AVERAGE  RATION,  PRO- 
PORTIONS BY  WEIGHT 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 

PER  PlO 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 

PER  PlQ 

AVERAGE  FEED  CONSUMED 
FOR  EACH  100  LB.  GAIN 

7.6  corn       .     .     . 
1  linseed-oil  meal 

lb. 
119 

lb. 

1.505 

lb. 

362.52  corn 
47.65  linseed-oil  meal 

15.4  corn 
1  tankage   .     .     . 

119 

1.581 

378.82  corn 
24.53  tankage 

The  summarized  results  show  up  in  favor  of  the  tankage 
rations,  both  in  rate  of  gain  and  total  feed  required  to  pro- 
duce a  given  gain.  Furthermore,  but  little  more  than  half 
as  much  tankage  was  fed  as  oil-meal,  which  permitted  the 
use  of  a  larger  proportion  of  corn  in  the  tankage  rations. 

1  Ind.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  137  and  126;  Ohio  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  213; 
Neb.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  147. 


Fattening  Pigs  in  the  Dry  Lot 


259 


As  calculated  from  the  averaged  quantity  of  corn  and 
supplement  required  to  produce  a  unit  of  gain  in  these 
eight  experiments,  tankage  and  linseed-oil  meal  would  have 
the  following  relative  money  values : 

TABLE   CUT.  —  VALUE    OF   TANKAGE    AS   AFFECTED    BY    THE 
PRICE  OF  CORN  AND  LINSEED-OIL  MEAL 


Corn  56^ 

Corn  7Q£ 

Corn  84£ 

Corn  98£ 

Corn  $1.40 

When  corn   and  lin- 
seed-oil   meal    are 

per  bushel 
Linseed-oil 

per  bushel 
Linseed-oil 

per  bushel 
Linseed-oil 

per  bushel 
Linseed-oil 

per  bushel 
Linseed-oil 

worth    

meal  $30 

meal  $40 

meal  $45 

meal  $50 

meal  $75 

per  ton 

per  ton 

per  ton 

per  ton 

per  ton 

Tankage  is  worth 

$44.98  per 
ton 

$61.08  per 
ton 

$67.47  per 
ton 

$73.86  per 
ton 

$112.46  per 
ton 

Tankage  versus  wheat  shorts  or  middlings. 

The  problem  of  choosing  between  wheat  shorts  or 
middlings  and  tankage,  in  obtaining  the  supply  of  pro- 
tein with  which  to  balance  corn  for  fattening  pigs  in  the 
dry  lot,  is  one  demanding  annual  consideration.  To 
give  information  regarding  the  relative  efficiency  of 
these  two  supplements,  the  results  of  six  practical  feeding 
tests  are  summarized  in  Table  CIV.  These  experi- 
ments covered  an  average  period  of  74  days,  and  the 
pigs  were  generally  fed  to  finished  market  weights. 

These  results  show  that  a  balanced  ration  of  corn  and 
tankage  was  more  palatable  than  one  of  corn  and  shorts 
or  middlings.  This  was  true  in  every  experiment  but 
one.  The  pigs  fed  tankage  made  average  daily  gains  of 
J  pound  in  excess  of  those  given  shorts  or  middlings. 
The  reliability  of  these  results,  however,  is  affected,  no 
doubt,  by  the  extreme  variation  of  the  proportions  in 
which  the  shorts  or  middlings  were  fed  in  the  different 
experiments.  Usually  it  is  necessary  to  feed  1  part  of 


260 


Pork  Production 


shorts  or  middlings  to  1  of  corn  in  order  to  have  as  much 
protein  in  the  ration  as  is  supplied  by  a  combination  of  10 
parts  of  corn  and  1  of  tankage.  From  the  standpoint  of 
the  farmer,  that  supplement  which  is  richest  in  protein 
and  which  consequently  permits  of  the  use  of  a  larger 
proportion  of  corn  in  the  ration,  is  always  to  be  preferred. 

TABLE  CIV.  —  SUMMARY  :    TANKAGE  VERSUS  WHEAT  SHORTS 
OR  MIDDLINGS  (Av.  6  Exps.)  1 


AVERAGE  RATION,  PROPOR- 
TIONS BY  WEIGHT 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN  PER 
PIG 

AVERAGE  FEED  CONSUMED 
FOR  EACH  100  LB.  GAIN 

63.2  %  corn  .... 
36.8  %  shorts  or  mid- 
dlings    .     . 

Ib. 

115 

Ib. 

1.396 

Ib. 
272.12  corn 
158.36  shorts  or  mid- 
dlings 

90.5  %  corn  .... 
9.5  %  tankage      .     . 

115 

1.570 

352.37  corn 
36.79  tank 

The  relative  values  of  tankage  and  shorts  or  middlings 
as  determined  by  the  average  quantity  of  these  feeds  re- 
quired to  produce  100  pounds  of  gain,  are  calculated  and 
shown  in  Table  CV. 

TABLE  CV.  —  VALUE  OF  TANKAGE  AS  AFFECTED  BY  THE  PRICE 
OF  CORN  AND  WHEAT  SHORTS  OR  MIDDLINGS 


When  corn  and  shorts 
or     middlings    are 
worth    

Corn  56 
per  bushel 
Shorts  $25 
per  ton 

Corn  70*< 
per  bushel 
Shorts  $30 
per  ton 

Corn  84t 
per  bushel 
Shorts  $40 
per  ton 

Corn  981 
per  bushel 
Shorts  $45 
per  ton 

Corn  $1.40 
per  bushel 
Shorts  $60 
per  ton 

Tankage  is  worth    . 

$63.98    per 
ton 

$74.60    per 
ton 

$106.74  per 
ton 

$11  7.34  per 
ton 

$149.20  per 
ton 

1  Ind.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  137 ;  Ohio  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  213  and  209; 
Kans.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  192 ;  Neb.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  147. 


Fattening  Pigs  in  the  Dry  Lot 


261 


Corn  and  tankage  versus  corn,  shorts,  and  tankage. 

Although  tankage  is  proved  to  be  a  more  efficient 
supplement  to  corn  than  shorts  or  middlings,  and  more 
economical  with  the  usual  prices,  a  combination  of  tank- 
age and  shorts  is  superior  to  tankage  alone.  Three  experi- 
ments conducted  by  Weaver  at  the  Missouri  Experiment 
Station  and  three  by  Wright  at  the  Kansas  Station  give 
rather  conclusive  evidence  in  support  of  this.  In  all 
these  tests  the  two  rations  were  fed  to  fattening  pigs  in 
the  dry  lot,  and  the  experiments  closed  when  approximate 
market  weights  had  been  attained.  The  summarized 
results  of  these  six  experiments,  which  covered  an  average 
period  of  63  days,  are  shown  in  Table  CVI. 

TABLE  CVI.  —  SUMMARY  :   CORN  AND  TANKAGE  VERSUS  CORN, 
SHORTS,  AND  TANKAGE  1  (Av.  6  Exps.) 


RATIONS  PBOPORTIONS  BY 
WEIGHT 

AVERAGE  DAILY 
GAIN  PER  PIG 

FEED  CONSUMED  FOR 
100  LB.  GAIN 

91.15%  corn  . 

Ib. 

Ib. 

411  65  corn 

8.85%  tankage  .... 

1.560 

40.01  tankage 

67.03%  corn  .     .     . 

293  01  corn 

25.39%  shorts     .... 
7.58%  tankage  .... 

1.793 

111.02  shorts 
33.14  tankage 

The  pigs  fed  an  average  of  25  per  cent  of  shorts  with 
corn  and  tankage  gained  daily  .23  of  a  pound  faster  than 
those  not  receiving  shorts.  In  each  of  the  six  tests  the 
consumption  of  feed  was  greater  and  the  gains  faster 
with  the  former  ration.  In  the  corn  and  tankage  ration, 
a  total  of  451.66  pounds  of  feed  was  required  to  pro- 
duce 100  pounds  of  gain,  and  in  the  corn,  shorts,  and 

i  Mo.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  144 ;   Kans.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  192. 


262 


Pork  Production 


tankage  ration,  a  total  of  437.17  pounds.  As  determined 
by  the  feed  required  to  produce  100  pounds  of  gain, 
111  pounds  of  shorts  were  equal  to  118.6  pounds  of  corn 
and  6.87  pounds  of  tankage. 

The  rations  containing  shorts  could,  no  doubt,  have 
been  made  cheaper  without  sacrificing  palatability  or 
balance,  by  increasing  somewhat  the  proportion  of  corn 
and  reducing  that  of  shorts. 

Tankage  versus  soybean  meal. 

Eight  experiments  conducted  at  four  experiment 
stations  give  information  regarding  the  relative  values 
of  tankage  and  soybean  meal  when  fed  to  balance  corn 
for  fattening  pigs.  In  each  of  the  tests  here  summarized, 
the  corn  was  fed  as  meal  and  the  soybeans  ground.  The 
experiments  covered  an  average  period  of  70  days.  A 
compilation  of  the  results  obtained  is  shown  in  the  sum- 
mary, Table  CVII. . 

TABLE  CVII.  —  SUMMARY  :  TANKAGE  VERSUS  SOYBEAN  MEAL 

(Av.  8  Exps.)1 


AVERAGE  RATION,  PROPOR- 
TION BY  WEIGHT 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN  PER 
PIG 

FEED  CONSUMED  FOR 
EACH  100  LB.  GAIN 

79.8%  corn  .... 
20.2%  soybean  meal  . 

tb. 
121 

Ib. 

1.435 

Ib. 

346.74  corn 
69.92  soybean  meal 

87.8%  corn  .... 
12.2%  tankage  .     .     . 

122 

1.590 

348.08  corn 
42.50  tankage 

The  pigs  fed  an  average  of  12  per  cent  tankage  in  their 
ration  gained  faster  than  those  receiving  a  ration  con- 

i  Ind.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  137 ;  Ohio  Exp.  Sta.  Bulls.  209  and  213  ; 
Kans.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  192 ;  Ky.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  175. 


Fattening  Pigs  in  the  Dry  Lot 


263 


taining  20  per  cent  of  soybean  meal.  This  was  true  in 
every  experiment  but  one,  in  which  the  gains  were  prac- 
tically the  same.  Since  tankage  contains  nearly  double 
the  quantity  of  protein,  1  pound  of  tankage  is  about  as 
effective  as  2  pounds  of  soybean  meal  in  balancing  a 
corn  ration.  As  a  rule  in  these  experiments,  tankage 
proved  to  be  the  more  palatable. 

In  feed  required  to  produce  100  pounds  of  gain,  42.5 
pounds  of  tankage  and  1.34  of  corn  were  equivalent  to 
69.92  pounds  of  soybean  meal.  This  would  give  for 
tankage  and  soybean  meal  the  relative  values  shown 
in  Table  CVIII. 

TABLE  CVIII.  —  VALUE  OF  TANKAGE  AS  AFFECTED  BY  PRICE 
OF  CORN  AND  SOYBEANS 


When  corn  and  soy- 
bean     meal      are 
worth  

Corn  56^ 
per  bushel 
Soybean 
meal  $30 
per  ton 

Corn  70i 
per  bushel 
Soybean 
meal  $40 
per  ton 

Corn  84£ 
per  bushel 
Soybean 
meal  $45 
per  ton 

Corn  98£ 
per  bushel 
Soybean 
meal  $50 
per  ton 

Corn  $1.40 
per  bushel 
Soybean 
meal  $75 
per  ton 

Tankage  is  worth    . 

$48.72    per 
ton 

$65.02    per 
ton 

$73.08    per 
ton 

$81.16    per 
ton 

$121.81  per 
ton 

Summary. 

The  sum  total  of  all  the  experimental  evidence  con- 
sidered in  the  preceding  pages  supports  the  conclusion 
that  high-grade  tankage  or  meat-meal  stands  next  to 
skim-milk  as  a  supplement  to  corn  for  fattening  pigs 
in  the  dry  lot.  For  feeding  pigs  on  forage  there  is  every 
reason  to  believe  that  its  relative  efficiency  is  as  great. 
Like  skim-milk  tankage  is  an  animal  food,  and  chemists 
have  determined  that  the  proteins  contained  in  animal 
foods  comprise  a  more  suitable  combination  of  muscle- 
building  constituents  than  is  contained,  as  a  rule,  in  the 


264  Pork  Production 

proteins  from  vegetable  sources.  Another  reason  why 
tankage  is  highly  efficient  for  balancing  corn  is  because 
of  its  extreme  richness  in  ash  or  bone-building  material. 
Furthermore,  a  large  part  of  this  ash  is  calcium  or  lime, 
which  is  present  in  very  meager  amounts  in  corn.  Tank- 
age is  a  mild  laxative  when  fed  in  small  amounts  and  tends 
to  promote  a  healthful  condition  generally. 

LINSEED-OIL  MEAL 

Linseed-oil  meal  is  the  ground  residue  after  the  oil 
has  been  extracted  from  flaxseed.  There  are  two  methods 
of  removing  this  oil,  known  as  the  old  and  the  new  process. 
Woll 1  describes  the  methods  of  manufacture  as  follows : 
"By  the  former  method  the  cleaned  and  ground  seeds 
are  placed  in  large  linen  bags  and  subjected  to  heavy 
pressure  until  the  residue  forms  cakes  about  one  inch 
thick  and  about  13  by  32  inches.  The  cakes  are  broken 
into  small  pieces  or  ground  to  a  fine  meal,  usually  the 
latter,  which  is  generally  sold  as  old-process  linseed-oil 
meal,  or  simply  oil  meal.  In  the  new  process  of  manu- 
facture the  flaxseed  is  ground,  and  heated  to  about  160°  F., 
and  is  then  placed  in  large  percolators  which  hold  about 
1000  bushels  or  more.  The  seed  is  treated  repeatedly 
with  naphtha  until  practically  all  the  oil  is  dissolved. 
Live  steam  is  then  introduced  into  the  percolators  and 
the  naphtha  gradually  driven  out  of  the  mass.  The  meal 
is  transferred  to  steam-heated  driers,  and,  when  dried, 
elevated  to  the  meal  bins  and  sacked." 

There  is  little  difference  in  the  value  of  these  feeds 
suggested  by  the  figures  given  in  the  composition  table. 
The  chief  difference  is  that  the  old-process  meal  contains 

1  "Productive  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals." 


Fattening  Pigs  in  the  Dry  Lot 


265 


about  4  per  cent  more  fat  than  the  new  process.  Old- 
process  meal,  however,  is  much  the  more  popular  and 
generally  used  feed.  In  practically  all  the  experiments 
here  reported,  the  old-process  meal  was  employed. 

TABLE     CIX.  —  COMPOSITION    OF     OLD    AND    NEW    PROCESS 
LINSEED-OIL  MEAL* 


TOTAL  DRY 
MATTER  IN 
100  LB. 

TOTAL  DIGESTIBLE 
NUTRIENTS  IN  100  LB. 

ASH 

NUTRITIVE 
RATIO 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fats 

Old-process 
linseed-oil  meal 

Ib. 

90.9 

Ib. 

30.2 

Ib. 
32.6 

Ib. 
6.7 

Ib. 

5.4 

1:1.6 

New-process 
linseed-oil  meal 

90.4 

31.7 

37.9 

2.8 

5.6 

1:1.4 

Corn  alone  versus  corn  and  linseed-oil  meal. 

In  Table  CX  are  shown  the  summarized  results  of 
four  experiments  in  which  rations  of  corn  alone  were  fed 
against  corn  with  linseed-oil  meal  added.  The  tests 
were  conducted  under  dry-lot  conditions  and  covered 
an  average  period  of  90  days. 

TABLE   CX.  —  SUMMARY  :     CORN   ALONE    VERSUS   CORN   AND 
LINSEED-OIL  MEAL  (Av.  4  Exps.) 


AVERAGE  RATION, 
PROPORTIONS  BY 
WEIGHT 

TOTAL 
NUMBER 
PIGS 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

FEED  EATEN  FOR  EACH 
100  LB.  GAIN 

Corn  alone     .     . 

30 

Ib. 
115 

Ib. 

.916 

Ib. 
532.82  corn 

6.6  corn, 
1  linseed-oil  meal 

30 

117 

1.453 

357.  12  corn 
54.42  linseed-oil  meal 

1  Appendix,  Henry  .and  Morrison's  "  Feeds  and  Feeding." 


266 


Pork  Production 


Balancing  the  corn  with  linseed-oil  meal  had  the  effect 
of  enhancing  the  palatability  of  the  ration,  increasing 
the  consumption  of  feed,  and  in  stimulating  more  rapid 
gains.  The  pigs  fed  linseed-oil  meal  with  their  corn 
were  on  the  average  50  pounds  heavier  at  the  end  of  the 
average  feeding  period  of  90  days. 

A  unit  of  gain  was  also  made  on  less  feed.  The  feeding 
of  54.42  pounds  of  linseed-oil  meal  had  the  effect  of  saving 
175.70  pounds  of  corn.  With  corn  worth  56  cents  a, 
bushel,  this  would  mean  a  valuation  of  $64.56  for  a  ton 
of  linseed-oil  meal  when  fed  under  the  conditions  of  these 
experiments.  An  exaggerated  value,  however,  is  given 
to  linseed-oil  meal  by  this  method  of  determination.  A 
more  reliable  test  is  obtained  by  comparing  it  with  other 
protein  supplements  of  the  same  class. 

Linseed-oil  meal  versus  tankage. 

On  page  258  is  given  a  summarized  statement  of  the 
results  of  eight  practical  feeding  experiments  in  which 
rations  of  corn  and  linseed-oil  meal  were  compared  with 
those  of  corn  and  tankage.  As  determined  by  the  amount 
of  feed  required  to  produce  100  pounds  of  gain  in  these 
experiments,  the  money  value  of  linseed-oil  meal  would 
be  as  shown  in  Table  CXI. 

TABLE  CXI.  —  VALUE  OF  LINSEED-OIL  MEAL  AS  AFFECTED  BY 
THE  PRICE  OF  CORN  AND  TANKAGE 


When  corn  and  tank- 
age are  worth  .  . 

Corn  56£ 
per  bushel 
Tankage 
$40  per 
ton 

Corn  70t 
per  bushel 
Tankage 
$50  per 
ton 

Corn  84fS 
per  bushel 
Tankage 
$60  per 
ton 

Corn  98j5 
per  bushel 
Tankage 
$70  per 
ton 

Corn  $1.40 
per  bushel 
Tankage 
$100  per 
ton 

Linseed-oil  meal  is 
worth  

$27.43  per 
ton 

$34.29  per 
ton 

$41.14  per 
ton 

$48.00  per 
ton 

$68.58  per 
ton 

Fattening  Pigs  in  the  Dry  Lot 


267 


To  balance  a  corn  ration,  1  pound  of  tankage  will  go 
nearly  as  far  as  2  pounds  of  linseed-oil  meal.  In  the 
above  experiments  the  following  average  proportions 
by  weight  were  fed :  7.6  parts  corn  to  1  of  linseed-oil 
meal  and  15.4  parts  of  corn  to  1  of  tankage. 

Linseed-oil  meal  versus  wheat  shorts  or  middlings. 

The  feeding  qualities  of  linseed-oil  meal  as  compared 
with  shorts  or  middlings  have  been  studied  in  six  different 
experiments.  Only  those  in  which  the  shorts  rations 
were  fed  in  the  proportion  of  one  or  more  parts  of  shorts 
or  middlings  to  two  of  corn  are  included,  since  a  smaller 
amount  does  not  furnish  a  well-balanced  ration.  The 
results  of  these  experiments,  which  were  all  with  fatten- 
ing pigs  in  the  dry  lot,  are  summarized  in  Table  CXII. 

TABLE  CXII.  —  SUMMARY:  LINSEED-OIL  MEAL  VERSUS  WHEAT 
SHORTS  OR  MIDDLINGS  (Av.  6  Exps.)  l 


AVERAGE  RATION,  PROPOR- 
TIONS BY  WEIGHT 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN  PER 
PIG 

AVERAGE  FEED  EATEN  PER 
100  LB.  GAIN 

1.13  corn 
1  middlings      .     .     . 

Ib. 
110 

Ib. 

1.286 

Ib. 

238.45  corn 
201.59  middlings 

5.33  corn 
1  linseed-oil  meal 

109 

1.564 

325.  16  corn 
60.98  linseed-oil  meal 

With  but  one  exception,  the  pigs  in  these  experiments 
given  the  average  ration  of  5.33  parts  of  corn  to  1  of 
linseed-oil  meal  ate  more  feed  and  gained  faster  than 
those  fed  the  average  ration  of  1.13  parts  of  corn  to  1  of 

*Ind.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  137;     Mo.  Exp.  Sta.  Bulls.  65  and 
67 ;   Ohio  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  213. 


268 


Pork  Production 


middlings.  The  pigs  eating  the  former  ration  made  a 
daily  gain  of  more  than  J  pound  in  excess  of  that  gained 
by  the  pigs  fed  the  middlings. 

Another  important  advantage  of  linseed-oil  meal 
over  shorts  or  middlings  was  that  a  larger  proportion  of 
the  ration  was  corn.  In  order  to  supply  as  much  protein 
as  was  contained  in  the  ration  of  5  parts  corn  and  1  part 
of  linseed-oil  meal,  it  would  be  necessary  to  feed  1  pound 
of  shorts  or  middlings  with  each  pound  of  corn. 

A  smaller  amount  of  total  feed  was  consumed  in  the 
production  of  a  given  gain,  also,  with  the  linseed-oil  meal 
ration  than  with  the  ration  containing  middlings.  Based 
on  the  feed  required  to  produce  100  pounds  of  gain,  as 
given  in  the  summary  table,  linseed-oil  meal  would  have 
the  valuations  shown  in  Table  CXIII. 


TABLE  CXIII.  —  VALUE  OF  LINSEED-OIL  MEAL  AS  AFFECTED 
BY  THE  PRICE  OF  CORN  AND  WHEAT  SHORTS  OR  MIDDLINGS 


When  corn  and  mid- 
dlings are  worth  . 

Corn  56f( 
per  bushel 
Middlings 
$25  per 
ton 

Corn  7Qt 
per  bushel 
Middlings 
$30  per 
ton 

Corn  84^ 
per  bushel 
Middlings 
$40  per 
ton 

Corn  98*< 
per  bushel 
Middlings 
$45  per 
ton 

Corn  $1.40 
per  bushel 
Middlings 
$60  per 
ton 

Linseed-oil  meal  is 
worth  

$55.  18  per 
ton 

$64.85  per 
ton 

$91.04  per 
ton 

$100.71  per 
ton 

$129.70  per 
ton 

If  the  addition  of  shorts  or  middlings  to  a  ration  of 
corn  and  tankage  has  the  effect  of  improving  its  value 
and  efficiency,  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  a  combina- 
tion of  corn,  shorts  or  middlings,  and  linseed-oil  meal 
would  be  an  improvement  over  corn  and  linseed-oil  meal 
alone,  although  there  is  no  evidence  except  general  expe- 
rience to  support  it.  A  ration  of  8  parts  of  corn,  2  parts 
shorts  or  middlings,  and  1  part  linseed-oil  meal,  by  weight, 


Fattening  Pigs  in  the  Dry  Lot 


269 


would    probably    stimulate   more   rapid   and    as   cheap 
gains  as  one  of  6  parts  corn  and  1  of  linseed-oil  meal. 

Linseed-oil  meal  versus  soybean  meal  (ground  soybeans) . 

The  Indiana  and  Ohio  experiment  stations  have  con- 
ducted four  experiments  in  which  rations  of  corn  and 
linseed-oil  meal  were  compared  with  rations  of  corn  and 
soybean  meal.  Although  soybeans  have  not  been  used 
extensively  as  a  supplement  to  corn  for  fattening  pigs 
in  the  dry  lot,  the  results  of  these  practical  feeding  tests 
would  indicate  their  value  when  available  for  feeding 
purposes.  Soybean  is  a  legume  and  offers  a  most  valuable 
source  of  home-grown  protein  in  many  sections  of  the 
United  States.  A  tabulation  of  the  results  of  these 
experiments  is  summarized  in  Table  CXIV. 

TABLE  CXIV.  —  SUMMARY  :    LINSEED-OIL  MEAL  VERSUS 
SOYBEAN  MEAL  (Av.  4  Exps.)  l 


AVERAGE  RATION,  PROPOR- 
TIONS BT  WEIGHT 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN  PER 
PIG 

FEED  CONSUMED  FOR  EACH 
100  LB.  GAIN 

5.8  corn 
1  soybeans  .... 

Ib. 

105 

Ib. 

1.435 

Ib. 

320.81  corn 
55.04  soybeans 

6.1  corn 
1  linseed-oil  meal  .     . 

105 

1.410 

339.93  corn 
54  96  linseed-oil  meal 

These  results  indicate  that  a  ton  of  ground  soybeans 
has  practically  the  same  value  as  a  ton  of  linseed-oil  meal. 

Summary. 

The  results  of  all  the  experimental  studies  in   which 

linseed-oil  meal  has  been  fed  in  comparison  with    the 

1  Ind.  Exp.  fcta.  Bulls.  126  and  137;  Ohio  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  213. 


270  Pork  Production 

other  standard  protein  supplements  would  indicate  that 
it  occupies  a  position  next  to  tankage  in  feeding  value. 
In  most  cases  the  rations  of  corn  and  linseed-oil  meal  did 
not  prove  so  palatable  nor  so  productive  of  rapid  gains  as 
did  those  of  corn  and  skim-milk  or  corn  and  tankage. 
Generally,  the  feed  cost  of  producing  a  unit  of  gain, 
also,  was  greater  with  the  linseed-oil  meal  rations.  Lin- 
seed-oil meal  and  soybean  meal  were  shown  to  have  prac- 
tically equal  value.  Compared  with  rations  of  corn  and 
wheat  shorts  or  middlings,  the  linseed-oil  meal  and  corn 
rations  ordinarily  proved  more  efficient  in  stimulating 
rapid  and  cheaper  gains. 

In  addition  to  supplying  needed  proteins,  linseed-oil 
meal  is  a  natural  laxative.  In  the  absence  of  wheat 
bran  or  succulent  feeds,  it  possesses  large  value  when  fed 
in  small  quantities  to  brood  sows,  boars,  and  gilts.  Be- 
cause of  its  regulative  properties,  its  value  for  breeding 
stock  generally  is  probably  much  greater  than  when 
measured  solely  by  fattening  experiments. 

BY-PKODUCTS  FROM  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  WHEAT  FLOUR 

In  the  manufacture  of  flour  from  wheat,  enormous  quanti- 
ties of  by-products  become  annually  available  for  feeding 
purposes.  Excepting  bran  and  screenings,  these  feeds  are 
more  generally  fed  to  swine  than  to  other  classes  of  stock. 

Wheat  bran  represents  the  outer  and  woody  coat  of 
the  wheat  berry  plus  small  and  varying  quantities  of 
adhering  flour  particles.  The  bran  manufactured  in  the 
modern  flour  mill  is  more  flaky,  lighter  in  weight,  and 
more  free  of  starch  or  flour  particles  than  that  coming  from 
mills  where  the  separation  of  the  white  flour  is  less  com- 
plete. Standard  wheat  middlings  or  shorts  represent  the 


PLATE  VII.  —  Above,  Pigs  on  the  self-feeder;  below,  A  practical 
convenience  in  hand-feeding. 


Fattening  Pigs  in  the  Dry  Lot 


271 


finer  parts  of  the  bran  layers  together  with  considerable 
amounts  of  adhering  starch  or  flour  grains.  Brown  mid- 
dlings is  a  term  sometimes  employed  also  to  designate  this 
feed.  Red-dog  or  dark  feeding  flour  comprises  the  germ 
of  the  wheat,  considerable  flour,  and  small  quantities  of 
fine  bran.  It  is  low  grade  flour.  So-called  white  or  flour 
middlings  represent  a  product  intermediate  in  grade  be- 
tween standard  middlings  or  shorts  and  red  dog  flour ; 
that  is,  it  contains  less  bran  and  more  flour  than  the 
former,  and  less  flour  and  more  bran  than  the  latter.  It 
is  equivalent  to  a  mixture  of  the  two.  Shipstuffs,  some- 
times designated  wheat  mixed  feed,  is  a  collective  name 
for  the  entire  and  ungraded  mill  run,  all  the  by-products 
being  run  together.  Wheat  screenings  are  the  weed 
seeds,  shrunken  and  broken  kernels  obtained  in  the  pro- 
cess of  cleaning  and  grading  wheat  preparatory  to  milling. 
In  Table  CXV  is  shown  the  average  composition  of 
each  of  these  by-products,  together  with  that  of  corn 
for  the  purpose  of  comparison. 

TABLE  CXV.  —  COMPOSITION  OP  WHEAT  FLOUR 
BY-PRODUCTS  l 


FEED 

TOTAL  DRY 
MATTER  IN 
100  LB. 

TOTAL  DIGESTIBLE  NUTRI- 
ENTS IN  100  LB. 

ASH 

NUTRI- 
TIVE 
RATIO 

Protein 

Cabohy- 
drates 

Fats 

Bran  .... 

89.9 
89.6 

89.3 

88.9 
89.8 
89.5 

12.5 
13.4 

15.7 
14.8 
9.6 
7.5 

41.6 
46.2 

52.8 
56.5 
47.3 
67.8 

3.0 
4.3 

4.3 
3.5 
3.6 
4.6 

6.3 
4.4 

3.7 

2.5 
3.9 

1.5 

1:3.9 
1:4.2 

1:4.0 
1:4.4 
1:  5.8 
1  :  10.4 

Standard  mid- 
dlings (shorts)  . 
White     or     flour 
middlings     .     . 
Red-dog  flour  .     . 
Screenings  .     .     . 
Corn  

1  Appendix,  Henry  and  Morrison's  "Feeds  and  Feeding.' 


272  Pork  Production 

As  a  class,  these  by-products  contain  much  smaller 
proportions  of  protein  to  carbohydrates  and  fats  than 
does  skim-milk  or  buttermilk,  tankage,  or  linseed-oil 
meal.  They  occupy  an  intermediate  position  between 
the  carbonaceous  grains  on  the  one  hand  and  the  more 
concentrated  and  richer  protein  or  nitrogenous  feeds 
on  the  other.  The  quantity  of  these  which  it  is  neces- 
sary to  feed,  consequently,  in  order  successfully  to  balance 
corn  is  considerably  greater  than  when  the  richer  protein 
feeds  are  used.  Bran  and  middlings  or  shorts  are  high 
in  their  content  of  ash  or  mineral  matter.  The  particular 
kinds  of  mineral  elements  supplied,  however,  are  not  the 
ones  most  needed  to  make  up  for  the  mineral  deficiencies 
of  corn.  They  are  not  so  valuable  as  bone-making  feeds, 
therefore,  as  their  composition  might  suggest. 

Standard  wheat  middlings  or  shorts  are  the  most  exten- 
sively employed  of  any  of  these  by-products  for  fattening 
pigs.  It  is  a  feed  which  the  successful  swine  grower  is 
rarely  without.  Wheat  bran  is  better  suited  to  breeding 
stock  than  to  growing  or  fattening  pigs.  Its  bulk  and 
laxative  properties  make  it  especially  valuable  when  used 
as  a  part  of  the  winter  rations  for  the  brood  sows  and  boars. 
For  young  pigs  and  fattening  shotes,  it  is  too  bulky  to  be 
economical  or  productive  of  rapid  gains.  Screenings  also 
contain  more  fiber  than  pigs  can  accommodate  successfully. 

The  practical  value  of  wheat  shorts  or  middlings  as  a 
furnisher  of  protein  with  which  to  balance  corn  for  fatten- 
ing pigs  is  shown  by  the  results  of  six  experiments 
summarized  in  Table  CXVI.  In  each  test  one  lot  of  pigs 
was  fed  corn  alone,  and  a  second  similar  lot  shorts  or 
middlings  in  the  average  proportion  of  1  pound  of  the 
supplement  to  1.39  pounds  of  corn.  The  feeding  periods 
lasted  an  average  of  81  days. 


Fattening  Pigs  in  the  Dry  Lot 


273 


TABLE  CXVI.  —  SUMMARY  :   CORN  ALONE  VERSUS  CORN  AND 
WHEAT  SHORTS  'OR  MIDDLINGS  (Av.  6  Exps.)  L 


AVERAGE  RATION 
PROPORTIONS  BY 
WEIGHT 

TOTAL 
NUMBER 
PIGS 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

FEED  EATEN  FOR  EACH 
100  LB.  GAIN 

Corn       .... 

28 

Ib. 

108 

Ib. 
.797 

Ib. 

554.68  corn 

1.39  corn    .     .     . 
1  shorts  or   mid- 
dlings .     .     . 

28 

105 

1.156 

258.18  corn 
184.76  shorts  or  mid- 
dlings 

In  every  instance  in  which  the  shorts  or  middlings  were 
fed,  the  gains  were  faster  and  the  total  feed  requirement 
for  producing  100  pounds  of  gain  less.  Here  again  are 
demonstrated  the  deficiencies  of  a  ration  of  corn  alone 
for  well-grown  fattening  pigs.  For  producing  100  pounds 
of  gain,  184.76  pounds  of  shorts  or  middlings  effected 
a  saving  of  296.50  pounds  of  corn.  That  is,  this  quantity 
of  shorts  or  middlings  fed  in  the  balanced  ration  replaced 
or  was  the  equivalent  of  296.50  pounds  of  corn  fed  in  the 
corn-alone  ration.  The  value  of  the  shorts  or  middlings 
in  reducing  the  cost  of  gains  compared  with  that  of  corn 
alone,  then,  would  be  as  shown  in  Table  CXVII. 

TABLE  CXVII.  —  MONEY  VALUE  OF  WHEAT  SHORTS  OR  MID- 
DLINGS WHEN  FED  WITH  CORN  TO  FATTENING  PIGS 


When  corn  cost    .     . 

56^  per 
bushel 

70ff  per 
bushel 

84^  per 
bushel 

98jf  per 
bushel 

$1.40  per 
bushel 

Wheat  shorts  or  mid- 
dlings are  worth    . 

$32.08  per 
ton 

$40.11  per 
ton 

$47.98  per 
ton 

$56.17  per 
ton 

$80.24  per 
ton 

1  Neb.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  107 ;   Ohio  Exp.  Sta.  Bulls.  209  and 
213;   Mo.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  65;   Ind.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  108. 


274 


Pork  Production 


These  figures  indicate  that  one  could  afford  to  pay  these 
prices  rather  than  feed  corn  alone.  Owing  to  the  fact, 
however,  that  other  protein  supplements  are  available  on 
the  market,  the  real  money  value  of  shorts  or  middlings 
is  dependent  on  the  prices  of  the  feeds  with  which  they 
must  compete. 

Shorts  or  middlings  versus  skim-milk  or  buttermilk. 

At  four  experiment  stations,  feeding  trials  have  been 
conducted  in  which  rations  of  corn  and  shorts  or  middlings 
were  compared  with  those  of  corn  and  skim-milk  or 
buttermilk  for  fattening  pigs  in  the  dry  lot.  In  each 
trial  the  corn  was  fed  as  a  meal  and  in  the  form  of  a  slop. 
The  summarized  results  from  these  experiments  are 
shown  in  Table  CXVIII. 

TABLE  CXVIII.  —  SUMMARY  :   WHEAT  SHORTS  OR  MIDDLINGS 
VERSUS  SKIM-MILK  OR  BUTTERMILK  (Av.  4  Exps.)  x 


AVERAGE 

AVERAGE 

AVERAGE  RATION,  PRO- 
PORTIONS, BT  WEIGHT 

NUMBER 

INITIAL 
WEIGHT 

DAILY 
GAIN 

FEED  EATEN  FOR  EACH 
100  LB.  GAIN 

PER  PIG 

PER  PIG 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

1  corn 

249  56  corn 

2.15  skim-milk  or 

buttermilk    . 

20 

99.0 

1.867 

536  91  milk 

1.  12  corn    .... 

234.28  corn 

1  middlings     .     .     . 

20 

101.2 

1.260 

208.38  middlings 

In  each  case  the  milk  ration  proved  the  more  palatable 
and  productive  of  rapid  gains.  The  pigs  receiving  skim- 
milk  or  buttermilk  gained  daily  .6  of  a  pound  faster  and 

1  Ohio  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  209 ;  Mo.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  79 ;  Pa.  Exp. 
Sta.  Bull.  9 ;  Ind.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  137. 


Fattening  Pigs  in  the  Dry  Lot 


275 


weighed  nearly  50  pounds    heavier  at  the  close  of  the 
experiments. 

The  amount  of  feed  required  to  produce  100  pounds  of 
gain  shows  208.38  pounds  of  shorts  or  middlings  to  have 
the  value  of  15.28  pounds  of  corn  and  536.91  of  skim- 
milk  or  buttermilk.  This  would  result  in  giving  to  shorts 
or  middlings  the  values  shown  in  Table  CXIX. 

TABLE  CXIX.  —  VALUE  OF  WHEAT  SHORTS  OR  MIDDLINGS 
AS  AFFECTED  BY  THE  PRICE  OF  CORN  AND  SKIM-MILK  OR 
BUTTERMILK 


When  corn  and 
skim-milk  or 
buttermilk  are 
worth  .... 

Corn  56j< 
per 
bushel 
Milk  20^ 
percwt. 

Corn  70jf 
per 
bushel 
Milk  25t 
per  cwt. 

Corn  84j< 
per 
bushel 
Milk  3Qt 
per  cwt. 

Corn  84£ 

bushel 
Milk  35£ 
per  cwt. 

Cora  98f£ 
per 
bushel 
Milk  40f< 
per  cwt. 

Corn  $1.40 
per  bushel 
Milk  50^ 
per  cwt. 

Shorts  or  mid- 
dlings are  worth 

$11.77 

per  ton 

$14.71 
per  ton 

$17.66 
per  ton 

$20.23 
per  ton 

$23.17 
per  ton 

$30.38  per 
ton 

Summary. 

When  measured  solely  by  the  results  of  these  experi- 
ments, shorts  or  middlings  did  not  prove  as  efficient 
for  balancing  corn  as  did  skim-milk,  tankage,  or  linseed- 
oil  meal.  There  was  more  variation  in  the  showing 
by  this  ration  in  the  different  experiments,  also,  than 
was  true  of  the  other  rations.  This  was  probably  be- 
cause the  quality  of  shorts  or  middlings  varies  consider- 
ably from  time  to  time,  especially  that  produced  by  mills 
in  different  sections.  The  tendency,  also,  to  use  the  term 
shorts  or  middlings  to  designate  any  of  these  products 
ranging  in  quality  from  bran  or  shipstuff  on  the  one  side 
to  flour  middlings  or  red-dog  flour  on  the  other,  may  have 
been  responsible  for  the  excellent  showing  of  this  ration  in 
some  of  these  experiments  and  its  very  ordinary  showing 


276 


Pork  Production 


in  others.  The  most  serious  criticism  against  the  use  of 
standard  shorts  or  the  finer  grades  of  middlings  as  exclu- 
sive supplements,  however,  arises  from  the  large  amount 
or  proportion  necessary  to  feed  in  order  properly  to 
balance  a  straight  corn  ration.  The  largest  value  of 
these  feeds  as  a  class  is  probably  derived  from  their  use 
in  conjunction  with  other  supplements  richer  in  pro- 
tein, and  as  a  basis  for  slops  in  feeding  show  and  breeding 
stock. 

GENERAL   SUMMARY 

Believing  that  a  summarized  statement  showing  the 
value  of  standard  protein-rich  supplements  for  balancing 
a  ration  of  straight  corn  for  fattening  pigs  in  the  dry  lot 
would  be  of  interest,  the  data  given  in  the  preceding 
tables  of  this  chapter  are  brought  together  in  Table 
CXX.  These  averages  are  based  on  the  results  of 
thirty-five  experiments  comparing  rations  of  corn  alone 
and  corn  with  a  protein  supplement  added.  A  total 
of  594  pigs,  averaging  118  pounds  at  the  beginning  of 
the  tests,  was  involved. 

TABLE  CXX.  —  CORN  ALONE  VERSUS   CORN   AND   A   PROTEIN 
SUPPLEMENT 


AVERAGE 

PORK 

RATIONS 

DAILY 
GAIN  PER 

FEED  EATEN  FOR  EACH 
100  LB.  GAIN1 

PRODUCED 
WITH  EACH 

PIQ 

56  LB.  FEED 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Corn  alone    .... 

.964 

544.06  corn 

10.29 

Corn  and  protein  sup- 

436.23 corn  and  sup- 

plement     .... 

1.462 

plement 

12.84 

1  Skim-milk  and  buttermilk  reduced  to  basis  of  other  supple- 
ments by  dividing  by  5. 


Fattening  Pigs  in  the  Dry  Lot 


277 


The  preceding  table  teaches  a  valuable  lesson.  For  prac- 
tical use,  however,  it  is  more  interesting  than  valuable. 
More  specific  information  is  required  to  settle  the  ques- 
tion of  the  most  effective  and  economical  supplement  to 
buy  to  balance  corn  for  fattening  pigs.  To  help  answer 
this  question,  the  summarized  results  of  all  the  previously 
considered  experiments  in  which  two  standard  protein 
supplements  were  compared  are  averaged  and  brought 
together  in  Table  CXXI. 

TABLE  CXXI.  —  THE  RELATIVE  VALUE  OF  STANDARD  PROTEIN 
SUPPLEMENT  FOR  FATTENING  PIGS  IN  THE  DRY  LOT 


RATIONS,  PROPORTIONS 
BY  WEIGHT 

AVERAGE 
DAILY  GAIN 
PER  PIG 

FEED  EATEN  FOR 
EACH  100  I.E.  GAIN 

NUMBER  OF 

EXPERIMENTS 

1.13  corn 
1  wheat  shorts  or 
middlings 

Ib. 

1.286 

Ib. 

238.45  corn 
201.59  shorts 

6 

5.33  corn 
1  linseed-oil  meal 

1.564 

325.16  corn 
60.98  linseed-oil 
meal 

6.1  corn 
1  linseed-oil  meal 

1.410 

339.93  corn 
54.96  linseed-oil 
meal 

4 

5.8  corn 
1  ground  soybeans 

1.430 

320.81  corn 
55.04  soybeans 

7.6  corn 
1  linseed-oil  meal 

1.505 

362.52  corn 
47.65  linseed-oil 
meal 

8 

15.4  corn 
1  tankage  or  meat- 
meal 

1.581 

378.82  corn 
24.53  tankage 

10.6  corn 
1  tankage 

1.202 

387.77  corn 
30.48  tankage 

8 

1  corn 
2.6   skim-milk   or 
buttermilk 

1.518 

325.00  corn 
584.50  milk 

278  Pork  Production 

In  Table  CXXI,  only  the  two  rations  included 
within  the  same  two  double  lines  are  comparable.  In 
the  first  section  linseed-oil  meal  is  compared  with 
shorts  or  middlings,  the  former  supplement,  based  on 
the  averages  of  six  experiments,  giving  the  better  results. 
In  the  second  section,  linseed-oil  meal  and  soybean  meal 
are  compared,  the  results  indicating  almost  equality  of 
value.  In  the  same  way  tankage  is  proved  slightly 
superior  to  linseed-oil  meal  as  a  supplement  to  corn  as 
shown  in  the  third  section,  and  skim-milk  or  buttermilk 
superior  to  tankage  in  the  fifth  or  last  part  of  the  table. 
The  reasons  why  the  results  of  the  corn  and  tankage 
ration  as  shown  in  the  last  part  of  the  table  are  not  as 
favorable  from  the  same  ration  when  it  was  compared  with 
corn  and  linseed-oil  meal,  are  probably  due  to  one  or 
more  of  the  following  factors :  the  age  or  thrift  or  breed- 
ing of  the  pigs,  the  length  of  the  experiments,  or  the  fa- 
vorableness  of  the  weather  or  other  general  conditions. 

Owing  to  the  variation  in  the  amount  of  protein  con- 
tained by  the  different  nitrogenous  supplements,  some 
must  be  fed  in  larger  amounts  than  others.  In  some 
of  the  rations  included  in  this  summary,  the  amount 
of  supplements  fed  was  excessive,  while  in  the  others 
less  was  fed  than  necessary  to  insure  an  adequate  supply 
of  protein.  The  relation  between  the  price  of  corn  and 
that  of  the  supplement,  and  the  relation  of  feed  to  pork 
prices,  is  probably  the  reason  for  the  variations  noted. 

In  Table  CXXII  is  stated  the  proportions  in  which  it 
is  necessary  to  feed  the  different  supplements  in  order 
to  supply  approximately  the  same  proportion  of  pro- 
tein in  a  corn  ration.  Under  average  conditions,  the 
experimental  feeding  trials  already  studied  would  indi- 
cate that  a  nutritive  ration  of  1 : 6.35-6.50  (that  is, 


Fattening  Pigs  in  the  Dry  Lot 


279 


1  part  of  digestible  protein  to  6.35  to  6.50  parts  of  digest- 
ible carbohydrate  equivalents  in  the  ration)  is  approxi- 
mately correct  for  fattening  pigs  in  the  dry  lot. 

TABLE  CXXII.  —  THE  PROPORTION  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  PRO- 
TEIN SUPPLEMENTS  REQUIRED  TO  BALANCE  CORN  FOR  GROW- 
ING AND  FATTENING  PIGS  l 


PROTEIN  SUPPLEMENT 

PER  CENT  OF 
SUPPLEMENT 

PER  CENT  OP 
CORN 

NUTRITIVE 
RATIO 

Tankage    or    meat-meal 
(55-60%  protein)    .     . 
Linseed-oil  meal  (o.p.) 
Soybeans            .... 

9 
17 
18 

91 
83 

82 

1  :  6.42 
1  :  6.31 
1  :  6.47 

Standard  wheat  shorts  or 

50 

50 

1  :  6.51 

Skim-milk 

65 

35 

1  :  6.32 

Buttermilk    

65 

35 

1  :  6.43 

1  Calculations  are  based  on  the  feed  compositions  as  given  in 
Henry  and  Morrison's  "Feeds  and  Feeding." 


CHAPTER  XII 


OTHER  CEREAL  GRAINS  FOR    GROWING 
FATTENING  PIGS 


AND 


WHERE  corn  can  be  grown  as  in  the  corn-belt  proper, 
it  probably  will  continue  to  be  the  main  reliance  in  pork 
production.  In  those  sections  in  which  corn  is  not  grown 
extensively,  however,  other  cereal  grains  must  be  de- 
pended on  largely  as  the  basis  for  the  growing  and  fatten- 
ing rations.  Even  within  the  corn-belt,  it  is  sometimes 
profitable  to  substitute  in  whole  or  part  some  one  of 
these  cereals  for  corn. 

The  composition  of  those  cereal  grains  employed  more 
or  less  extensively  is  shown  in  Table  C XXIII. 

TABLE  CXXIII.  —  COMPOSITION  CEREAL   GRAINS  1 


GRAIN 

TOTAL  DRY 
MATTER  IN 

100  LB. 

TOTAL  DIGESTIBLE  NUTRI- 
ENTS IN  100  LB. 

ASH 

NUTRI- 
TIVE 
RATIO 

Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates 

Fats 

Corn  •  . 

89.5 
90.7 
89.8 
90.6 
90.8 
91.3 
88.2 
89.3 
87.3 
89.2 
90.1 

7.5 
9.0 
9.2 
9.9 
9.7 
9.5 
9.0 
8.7 
7.5 
9.3 
8.5 

67.8 
66.8 
67.5 
68.4 
52.1 
63.2 
65.8 
66.2 
66.2 
66.6 
67.0 

4.6 
1.6 
1.5 
1.2 
3.8 
1.7 
2.3 
2.2 
2.6 
2.5 
3.3 

1.5 
2.7 
1.9 
2.0 
3.5 
3.7 
1.7 
2.8 
1.9 
1.5 
1.9 

10.4 

7.8 
7.7 
7.2 
6.3 
7.1 
7.9 
8.2 
9.6 
1      7.8 
1      8.8 

Barley  .... 
Wheat  .... 
Rve  . 

Oats  

Emmer  (Spelt)  . 
Kafir  .... 
Milo  

Sorghum  .  .  . 
Feterita  .... 
Kaoliang  .  .  . 

Appendix,  Henry  and  Morrison's 

280 


Feeds  and  Feeding." 


Other  Cereal  Grains  for  Growing  Pigs  281 

All  these  cereals  are  rich  in  carbohydrates,  mostly 
starch,  and  poor  in  protein  and  ash.  With  the  exception 
of  oats  and  emmer,  they  are  highly  concentrated  and 
better  suited  to  fattening  than  to  growing  animals.  Al- 
though similar  in  composition  as  expressed  by  the  usual 
chemical  analysis,  each  possesses  peculiarities  in  taste, 
physical  properties,  and  chemical  make-up  which  affect 
its  usefulness  as  a  swine-feed. 

BARLEY 

Perhaps  barley  is  more  widely  used  for  swine-feeding 
than  any  other  grain.  In  Canada,  Great  Britain,  and  the 
continental  European  countries,  it  is  largely  depended 
on  in  the  production  of  the  finest  quality  of  bacon.  In 
the  West  and  Northwest,  barley  is  generally  used  and 
highly  thought  of,  fed  alone  with  supplements  or  in  com- 
bination with  other  grains. 

Barley  versus  corn. 

In  Table  CXXIV  have  been  brought  together  results 
of  American  pig-feeding  experiments  in  which  rations 
containing  barley  were  compared  with  those  including 
corn.  In  all  cases  both  cereals  were  fed  ground,  and 
commonly  in  the  form  of  a  thick  slop. 

In  every  instance  the  pigs  fed  the  corn  ration  made 
faster  gains  than  with  the  barley.  Considering  only 
the  three  experiments  in  which  a  direct  comparison  of 
barley  and  corn  is  possible,  the  gains  made  on  the  corn 
rations  were  on  the  average  18  per  cent  faster  than  those 
on  the  barley.  For  producing  the  same  gain,  100 
pounds  of  corn  proved  equivalent  to  120  pounds  of 
barley. 


282 


Pork  Production 


TABLE  CXXIV.  —  BARLEY  VERSUS  CORN  FOR  GROWING   AND 
FATTENING  PIGS 


GRAIN 

SUPPLE- 
MENT 

NUM- 
BER 
PIGS 
EACH 
Lor 

LENGTH 

OF 

TEST 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

FEED  EATEN 
FOR  EACH 
100  LB.  GAIN 
(not  including 
hay) 

STATION 

AND 

AUTHOR 

days 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Corn 

Wheat 

shorts 

6 

83 

138 

1.50 

347  corn 

N.  Dak. 

92  shorts 

Bull.  84 

Shepperd 

Barley 

6 

83 

136 

1.23 

458  barley 
116  shorts 

and 
Richards 

Corn 

Alfalfa 

4 

56 

147 

1.02 

389  corn 

Wyoming 

meal 

97  alfalfa 

Bull.  107 

meal 

Barley 

•• 

4 

56 

140 

.98 

400  barley 

Faville 

100  alfalfa 

meal 

Corn 

Alfalfa 

30 

148 

86 

1.01 

442  corn 

Nebraska 

hay 

Bull.  124 

Snyder 

$  Corn 

" 

30 

148 

86 

.96 

494  corn 

and 

i  Barley 

and  barley 

Burnett 

Corn 

Alfalfa 

20 

94 

82 

1.02 

470  corn 

Nebraska 

hay 

Bull.  99 

Emmer 

" 

20 

94 

81 

.77 

618  emmer 

Snyder 

and 

Barley 

" 

20 

94 

80 

.81 

590  barley 

Burnett 

Corn 

Alfalfa 

12 

42 

160 

1.53 

470  corn 

Nebraska 

hay 

Bull.  99 

i  Corn 

.< 

12 

42 

146 

1.35 

482  corn 

Snyder 

i  Emmer 

and  emmer 

and 

Burnett 

i  Corn 

" 

12 

42 

155 

1.45 

463  corn 

*  Barley 

and  barley 

Being  richer  in  protein  and  mineral  matter,  a  ration  of 
barley  alone  may  be  regarded  as  less  objectionable  for 
young  and  growing  pigs  than  one  of  corn  alone.  For 
fattening  shotes  of  the  lard  type,  and  in  rations  which 
are  properly  supplemented,  on  the  other  hand,  corn 
will  usually  give  better  results  than  barley. 

The  results  of  the  two  Nebraska  experiments  indicate 


Other  Cereal  Grains  for  Growing  Pigs 


283 


that  emmer  is  somewhat  less  valuable  than  barley,  prob- 
ably due  to  its  containing  a  high  percentage  of  fiber. 

To  give  the  best  results  in  rapid  and  economical  gains, 
however,  barley  must  be  supplemented  properly  when  fed 
to  growing  or  fattening  pigs.  This  principle  is  illus- 
trated by  the  results  of  an  experiment  conducted  by 
Faville  l  at  the  Wyoming  Experiment  Station  as  shown 
in  Table  CXXV. 


TABLE  CXXV.  —  BARLEY  VERSUS  BARLEY  PLUS  MEAT-MEAL 
FOR  FINISHING  FATTENING  PIGS 


RATION,  PROPOR- 
TIONS BY  WEIGHT 

NUMBER 
PIGS 
EACH 
LOT 

LENGTH 

OF 

TEST 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

FEED  EATEN  FOB 
EACH  100  LB. 
GAIN 

Barley  meal     . 

5 

days 

70 

Ib. 

88 

Ib. 

146 

Ib. 

413  barley 

9  barley  meal 
1  meat-meal 

5 

70 

87 

1.74 

333  barley 
37  meat-meal 

Barley  rations  for  bacon-production. 

The  work  of  Day  at  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College 
and  Grisdale  of  the  Central  Experimental  Farms  at 
Ottawa  has  demonstrated  conclusively  the  superiority 
of  barley  over  all  other  cereal  grains  for  the  production 
of  bacon  of  the  highest  quality.  Although  corn  produces 
lard  of  good  firmness,  color,  and  texture,  the  results  of 
Canadian  experiments  generally  show  its  inferiority  for 
the  production  of  firm  bacon.  In  Table  CXXVI  are  the 
results  of  experiments  comparing  barley  and  corn  for 
feeding  pigs  intended  for  bacon-production. 


1  Bull.  114. 


284 


Pork  Production 


TABLE  CXXVI.  —  BARLEY  RATIONS  FOR  BACON-PRODUCTION 


i 

jjji  0 

h 

RATIONS,  PROPOR- 
TIONS BY  WEIGHT 

2 

H 
5 
1 

i! 

!« 

FEED  EATEN  FOR 
EACH  100  POUNDS 
GAIN 

STATION  AND 
AUTHOR 

ll 

a  H 

^3 

days 

Ib. 

Z6. 

Ib. 

Cen.  Exp. 

Corn  -meal 

4 

112 

74 

.87 

416  corn 

Farms, 

Barley  meal 

4 

112 

73 

1.00 

435  barley 

Bull.  33, 

Grisdale 

1  corn-meal       \ 

1° 

110 

817 

f432  corn  and 

1  w  middlings  J 

\  middlings 

1  barley  meal    1 
1  w.  middlings  J 

12 

140 

— 

.841 

f  430  barley  and 
\  middlings 

4  barley  meal    V 
1  w.  middlings  J 

5 

120 

54 

.789 

/  458  barley  and 
\  middlings 

2  barley  meal    1 
2  corn-meal-       \ 

5 

120 

54 

.762 

[  478  barley, 
\  corn,  and 

Annual 

1  w.  middlings  j 

[  middlings 

Report 

1QOO 

2  barley  meal    1 
2  oat  meal         > 
1  w.  middlings  j 

5 

120 

54 

.645 

{  526  barley, 
{  oats  and 
[  middlings 

Ont.  Agr. 
College, 
Day 

2  barley  meal    1 
2  roots(cooked)  > 
1  w.  middlings  J 

5 

120 

54 

.850 

f  397  meal 
\  361  roots 

2  barley  meal    ] 

2  roots 
(uncooked)     j 

5 

120 

54 

.807 

f  423  meal 
\  374  roots 

1  w.  middlings  J 

' 

Contrary  to  the  results  of  experiments  conducted  in  the 
states  and  reported  in  Table  CXXIV,  the  rations  contain- 
ing barley  in  the  Canadian  experiments  produced  faster 
gains  with  less  feed  than  did  those  containing  corn.  The 
contradiction  in  the  two  sets  of  results  is  probably  to  be 


Other  Cereal  Grains  for  Growing  Pigs  285 

explained  by  a  difference  in  the  quality  of  corn  and  barley 
fed.  Examination  of  the  carcasses  showed  the  corn-fed 
pigs  to  be  decidedly  inferior  to  the  barley-fed  animals. 

Regarding  the  suitability  of  barley  for  bacon-produc- 
tion Day  1  says :  "  Barley  is  a  noted  hog  food  in  Europe ; 
but  some  feeders  in  this  country  do  not  look  upon  it  with 
favor.  We  have  secured  excellent  results  from  barley, 
however,  both  in  the  amount  of  gain  and  the  quality  of 
bacon.  For  young  pigs  it  should  be  mixed  with  wheat 
middlings,  a  very  little  barley  being  used  at  first,  and 
the  quantity  gradually  increased.  For  older  pigs  peas 
or  wheat  may  be  added.  Some  succulent  food,  such  as 
roots  or  green  feed,  should  always  be  fed  with  it ;  and 
skim-milk  makes  a  great  improvement.  It  is  not  gen^ 
erally  regarded  with  favor  as  a  food  for  breeding  sows." 

WHEAT 

The  demand  for  wheat  flour  in  this  country  and  abroad 
leaves  little  sound  wheat  available  for  feeding  purposes. 
Occasionally,  however,  through  the  scarcity  of  old  corn 
and  a  large  wheat  crop,  this  cereal  is  available  at  a  price 
more  commensurate  with  its  feeding  value.  At  such 
times  the  corn-belt  feeder  especially  desires  to  know  the 
relative  merits  of  wheat  and  corn,  and  the  method  of 
feeding  wheat  most  likely  to  give  the  best  results. 

Wheat  versus  corn. 

Plumb  and  Anderson 2  at  the  Indiana  station  and 
Snyder  and  Burnett 3  at  the  Nebraska  station  have  con- 
ducted feeding  trials  in  which  the  dry  unground  wheat 
was  compared  with  shelled  corn.  In  the  Indiana  experi- 

1  Ont.  Agr.  Coll.  Bull.  129.  2  Bull.  67.  3  Ibid.  167. 


286 


Pork  Production 


ment  skim-milk  was  fed  as  a  supplement,  and  in  the 
Nebraska  experiment  access  to  alfalfa  hay  was  given. 
The  results  of  these  are  averaged  and  reported  in  Table 
CXXVII. 

TABLE  CXXVII.  —  WHOLE  WHEAT  (dry)  VERSUS  SHELLED 
CORN  (dry)     (Av.  2  Exps.) 


GRAIN 

TOTAL, 
NUMBER 
PIGS 

AVERAGE 
LENGTH  OF 
EXPERIMENTS 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL, 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

CONCENTRATES 
EATEN  FOR  EACH 
100  LB.  GAIN 

Days 

tb. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Shelled  corn  . 

13 

101 

77.4 

1.135 

390  corn 

Whole  wheat 

13 

101 

76.6 

1.020 

432  wheat 

In  both  these  experiments,  better  results  were  obtained 
with  shelled  corn  than  with  whole  wheat.  The  fact 
that  wheat  is  hard  to  masticate,  that  it  tends  to  become 
gummy  and  form  a  pasty  mass  when  chewed,  is  probably 
responsible  for  its  poor  showing  in  these  tests. 

TABLE    CXXVIII.  —  GROUND    WHEAT  VERSUS  GROUND   CORN 
(Av.  6  Exps.) 


RATIONS 

TOTAL 
NUMBER 
PIGS 

AVERAGE 
LENGTH  OF 
EXPERIMENTS 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

CONCENTRATES 
EATEN  FOR 
EACH  100  LB. 
GAIN 

days 

tb. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ground  corn  . 

46 

110 

100 

1.136 

522.6 

Ground  wheat 

46 

110 

102 

1.291 

474.4 

To  determine   the   relative   merits   of   ground   wheat 
and  ground  corn,  fed  as  a  thick  slop,  the  averaged  results 
of  six  experiments  conducted  at  the  Missouri,1  Ohio,2 
1  Weaver,  Bull.  136.  2  Eastwood,  Bull.  268. 


Other  Cereal  Grains  for  Growing  Pigs  287 

and  Nebraska,1  experiment  stations  are  summarized 
in  Table  CXXVIII.  In  three  of  the  experiments  the 
grains  were  fed  alone,  while  in  the  other  three  protein 
supplements  were  given  in  the  same  proportion  in  both 
rations. 

In  every  experiment  contributing  results  in  the  above 
table,  the  gains  were  faster  on  the  wheat  than  on  the  corn 
rations;  and,  with  the  exception  of  one  experiment,  a 
unit  of  gain  was  made  on  less  feed.  The  averaged  results 
showed  the  pigs  on  the  wheat  rations  to  have  gained 
13.6  per  cent  faster;  and  for  producing  a  given  gain, 
100  pounds  of  wheat  proved  equivalent  to  110  pounds  of 
corn.  For  growing  pigs,  however,  shelled  corn  is  as 
efficient  as  ground  corn  (see  page  339) .  Since  it  is  neces- 
sary to  grind  wheat,  the  advantage  of  wheat  over  corn 
when  available  at  the  same  price  is  largely  offset  by  the 
expense  of  grinding. 

Wheat  versus  one-half  wheat  and  one-half  corn. 

Four  experiments  by  Weaver  2  at  the  Missouri  Experi- 
ment Station  gave  uniformly  better  results  from  ground 
wheat  alone  than  from  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  ground 
wheat  and  ground  corn,  both  when  the  grains  were  fed 
alone  and  when  supplemented  with  tankage.  The 
average  daily  gain  on  the  wheat-alone  ration  was  1.385 
pounds  and  on  a  mixture  of  the  two  grains  1.31  pounds, 
and  the  total  feed  required  to  produce  100  pounds  of 
gain  476  and  503  pounds,  respectively.  The  thirty-six 
pigs  averaged  about  97  pounds  at  the  beginning  of  the 
experiments,  which  covered  an  average  period  of  120  days. 

On  the  other  hand,  Henry,3  at  the  Wisconsin  Station 

1  Smith,  Bull.  75.  2  Bull.  136. 

3  Wis.  An.  Rpt.,  1894. 


288 


Pork  Production 


in  three  experiments  with  eighteen  pigs  averaging  159 
pounds,  obtained  slightly  but  uniformly  better  results 
from  the  mixture  of  equal  parts  ground  wheat  and  ground 
corn  than  from  ground  wheat  alone,  both  rations  in  each 
experiment  being  unsupplemented.  High-grade  wheat 
was  used  at  both  stations  and  the  rations  fed  in  the  form 
of  a  thick  slop.  The  averaged  data  of  all  seven  experi- 
ments at  both  stations  give  results  which  favor  very 
slightly  the  wheat-alone  ration. 

Dry  whole  wheat  versus  soaked  whole  wheat. 

The  results  of  three  experiments,  involving  thirty- 
eight  pigs,  give  information  regarding  the  advantage 
of  soaking  whole  wheat.  Two  were  conducted  at  the 
Nebraska  l  Experiment  Station  and  one  at  the  Indiana 
station.2  In  one  of  the  Nebraska  trials,  the  pigs  were 
given  in  addition  to  the  wheat  access  to  alfalfa  hay,  of 
which  they  ate  very  little.  The  essential  results  are 
averaged  and  shown  in  Table  CXXIX. 


TABLE  CXXIX.  —  DRY  WHOLE  WHEAT  VERSUS  SOAKED 
WHOLE  WHEAT  (Av.  3.  Exps.) 


RATION 

TOTAL 
NUMBER 
PIGS 

AVERAGE 
LENGTH  OF 
EXPERI- 
MENTS 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

CONCEN- 
TRATES 
EATEN  FOR 
EACH  100 
LB.  GAIN 

days 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Dry  whole  wheat     . 

19 

98 

88 

.89 

500 

Soaked  whole  wheat 

19 

98 

88 

.94 

478 

1  Snyder  and  Burnett,  Neb.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  147 ;  Smith,  Neb. 
Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  75. 

2  Plumb  and  Anderson,  Ind.  Bull.  67. 


Other  Cereal  Grains  for  Growing  Pigs  289 


In  each  experiment  the  results  in  rate  and  economy 
of  gain  were  in  favor  of  the  soaked  wheat.  With  neither 
ration,  however,  were  the  results  satisfactory. 

Soaked  whole  wheat  versus  soaked  ground  wheat. 

Accumulated  studies  by  the  experiment  stations  of 
the  country  have  proved  rather  conclusively  that  wheat 
must  be  ground  for  the  best  results.  In  Table  CXXX 
the  results  of  five  experiments  are  summarized  when 
soaked  whole  wheat  was  fed  one  lot  of  pigs  and  soaked 
ground  whole  wheat  another  lot.  The  wheat  was  soaked 
twenty-four  to  forty-eight  hours.  Tankage  was  fed  as  a 
supplement  in  one  experiment  and  alfalfa  hay  in  a  second. 
In  the  other  cases  no  protein  feeds  were  used.  In  one 
of  the  trials  the  wheat  fed  had  been  frosted. 

TABLE  CXXX.  —  SOAKED  WHOLE  WHEAT  VERSUS   SOAKED 
GROUND  WHEAT  (Av.  5  Exps.)  l 


RATIONS 

TOTAL 
NUMBER 
PIGS 

AVERAGE 
LENGTH  OF 
EXPERIMENTS 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

CONCENTRATES 
EATEN  FOR 
EACH  100  LB. 
GAIN 

Soaked  whole 
wheat      .     . 

42 

days 
81 

Ib. 

135 

Ib. 

1.118 

Ib. 

538 

Soaked  ground 
wheat      .     . 

43 

81 

136 

1.354 

442 

For  producing  a  given  gain,  100  pounds  of  soaked 
ground  wheat  is  shown  here  to  have  the  value  of  121 
pounds  of  soaked  whole  wheat.  In  addition,  the  pigs 

1  Grisdale,  Central  Exp.  Farms,  Canada,  Bull.  33 ;  Bliss  and 
Lee,  Neb.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  144 ;  Snyder  and  Burnett,  Neb.  Exp. 
Sta.  Bull.  147 ;  Good  and  Smith,  Ky.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  75. 


290 


Pork  Production 


fed  the  ground  wheat  gained  21  per  cent  faster  than  those 
fed  the  whole  wheat. 

Wheat  alone  versus  wheat  and  a  protein  supplement. 

Like  corn,  wheat  must  be  supplemented  with  a  feed 
rich  in  nitrogenous  material  if  the  most  rapid  and  eco- 
nomical gains  are  made.  This  is  demonstrated  by  the 
results  of  six  experiments,  summarized  in  Table  CXXXI. 
In  all  of  the  trials  but  one,  the  wheat  was  ground  and  fed 
as  a  slop ;  in  five  of  the  trials  5  to  8  per  cent  of  tankage 
was  fed  in  the  supplemented  ration,  and  in  the  other 
50  per  cent  of  wheat  shorts. 

TABLE  CXXXI.  —  WHEAT  ALONE  VERSUS  WHEAT  AND  A 
PROTEIN  SUPPLEMENT1  (Av.  6  Exps.) 


RATIONS 

TOTAL 

NUM- 
BER 
PIGS 

AVERAGE 
LENGTH 

OF 
EXPERI- 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

TOTAL  CON- 
CENTRATES 
EATEN 
FOR  EACH 
100  LB. 

GAIN 

days 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Wheat  alone  .... 

53 

89 

106 

1.158 

475 

Wheat  and  supplement 

52 

89 

106 

1.356 

437 

Frosted  versus  sound  wheat. 

In  practically  all  the  experiments  thus  far  considered 
with  wheat,  the  grain  fed  was  sound  and  marketable. 
Wheat  which  has  been  injured  while  in  the  dough  stage 
by  hot  winds  or  frost  or  damaged  by  excessive  rains  during 
harvest,  is  considered  to  have  a  lower  feeding  value  than 
wheat  which  has  been  properly  filled  or  been  uninjured. 

1  Weaver,  Mo.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  136 ;  Good  and  Smith,  Ky. 
Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  190 ;  Bliss  and  Lee,  Neb.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  144 ; 
Clark,  Mont.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  89. 


Other  Cereal  Grains  for  Growing  Pigs 


291 


Likewise  "salvage"  wheat,  which  has  been  more  or  less 
damaged  by  elevator  fire,  is  no  doubt  less  valuable  than 
sound  wheat  in  direct  proportion  to  the  degree  of  injury 
done. 

An  experiment  conducted  at  the  Montana  Experiment 
Station  by  Clark  1  suggests  the  feeding  qualities  of  frosted 
as  contrasted  with  good  wheat.  The  wheat  for  both 
lots  of  pigs  was  ground  and  fed  without  supplements,  in 
the  form  of  a  slop.  The  results  are  shown  in  Table 
CXXXII. 

TABLE  CXXXII.  —  FROSTED  WHEAT  VERSUS  SOUND  WHEAT 


RATIONS 

LENGTH 

OF 

EXPERI- 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 

AVERAGE 
FINAL 
WEIGHT 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 

FEED 
EATEN  FOR 
EACH 

MENT 

PER  PIG 

PER  PIG 

PER  PIG 

GAIN 

days 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Frosted  wheat    .     . 

49 

149 

194 

.92 

560 

Sound  wheat  .     .     . 

49 

150 

199 

1.01 

532 

In  this  experiment,  100  pounds  of  sound  wheat  were 
equal  to  105  pounds  of  frosted  wheat.  The  pigs  receiv- 
ing the  sound  grain  also  gained  9.7  per  cent  faster. 

RYE 

The  composition  of  rye  would  suggest  that  its  feeding 
value  for  growing  and  fattening  pigs  would  be  equal 
if  not  superior  to  that  of  corn.  The  results  of  a  few 
experimental  feeding  tests,  however,  prove  rather  con- 
clusively that  its  value  is  a  little  less  than  corn.  The 
results  of  an  experiment  by  H.  R.  Smith  2  at  the  Nebraska 


Bull.  89. 


Ibid.,  75. 


292 


Pork  Production 


Experiment  Station  are  shown  in  Table  C XXXIII.  In 
each  lot  the  grain  was  fed  ground  without  a  supplement 
and  in  the  form  of  a  slop. 

TABLE  CXXXIII.  —  GROUND  RYE  VERSUS  GROUND  CORN 


GRAIN 

NUMBER 
PIGS 

LENGTH 
OF  EXPERI- 
MENT 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

FEED 
EATEN  FOR 
EACH 
100  LB. 
GAIN 

days 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ground  corn  .     .     . 

6 

91 

110 

.71 

609 

Ground  rye    .     .     . 

6 

91 

107 

.67 

624 

Although  the  pigs  were  occasionally  given  lime  and 
charcoal,  the  gains  were  hardly  satisfactory  in  either  lot. 
The  corn-fed  pigs  gained  faster,  however,  than  the  rye- 
fed,  100  pounds  of  the  former  being  equal  to  102  pounds 
of  rye  in  the  production  of  a  unit  of  gain.  The  rye  was 
eaten  with  less  relish  and  in  slightly  smaller  amounts 
than  was  the  corn.  Owing  to  the  difficulty  of  masti- 
cating rye  successfully,  it  must  be  ground  for  best  results. 

At  the  experimental  substation  at  North  Platte,  Ne- 
braska, Snyder  and  Burnett1  conducted  three  pig-feed- 
ing experiments  in  which  rye  was  compared  with  wheat. 
In  two  of  the  trials  the  grains  were  fed  soaked  and  without 
grinding,  and  in  one  the  grains  were  both  soaked  and 
ground.  The  pigs  in  two  of  the  tests  had  access  to 
alfalfa  hay  in  a  rack,  while  in  the  other  experiment  the 
grains  were  fed  alone.  The  results  of  these  three  experi- 
ments are  shown  in  Table  CXXXIV,  the  first  part  of 
which  gives  the  average  of  the  two  trials. 


1  Bull.  147. 


Other  Cereal  Grains  for  Growing  Pigs  293 

TABLE   CXXXIV.  —  RYE  VERSUS  WHEAT 


LENGTH 

AVERAGE 

AVERAGE 

AVERAGE  TOTAL 

RATIONS 

NUMBER 
OF  PIGS 

OF 

EXPERI- 

INITIAL 
WEIGHT 

DAILY 
GAIN 

FEED  EATEN  FOR 
EACH  100  LB. 

MENTS 

PER  PIG 

PER  PIG 

GAIN 

days 

tb. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Whole  wheat  — 

504  wheat 

soaked  .     .     . 

19 

98 

107.5 

1.05 

10  alfalfa  hay 

Whole  rye  — 

546  rye 

soaked  .     .     . 

19 

98 

109.9 

.88 

12  alfalfa  hay 

Ground  wheat  — 

425  wheat 

soaked  .     .     . 

10 

98 

123 

1.39 

10  alfalfa  hay 

Ground  rye  — 

572  rye 

soaked  .     .     . 

10 

98 

123 

.83 

23  alfalfa  hay 

In  all  cases  the  wheat  gave  better  results  than  the  rye, 
especially  when  both  were  ground.  Averaging  the  results 
from  all  three  trials,  100  pounds  of  wheat  proved  equal  to 
116  pounds  of  rye  in  the  production  of  a  given  gain.  The 
rate  of  gain,  also,  was  approximately  35  per  cent  faster 
on  the  wheat  than  on  the  rye  rations. 

According  to  Henry  and  Morrison,1  extensive  experi- 
ments in  Denmark  have  shown  rye  meal  to  be  slightly 
less  valuable  than  corn-meal,  and  about  equal  to  barley 
meal  in  the  production  of  pork.  The  bacon  from  rye- 
fed  pigs  was  good,  though  not  so  satisfactory  as  when 
it  was  fed  in  combination  with  other  grains.  Rye  bran 
and  rye  middlings,  on  the  other  hand,  produced  bacon 
of  a  very  inferior  quality. 

OATS 

Although  oats  are  an  excellent  feed  for  brood  sows 
and  other  hogs  not  receiving  full  fattening  rations,  they 

1  "Feeds  and  Feeding,"  1915. 


294 


Pork  Production 


are  too  bulky  to  give  satisfactory  results  when  fed  to 
growing  pigs  and  fattening  shotes.  A  hundred  pounds 
of  oats  contain  15.3  pounds  less  of  digestible  nutrients 
than  the  same  amount  of  corn.  Corn  contains  2  per 
cent  of  woody  fiber,  while  oats  contain  10.9  per  cent. 
This  is  the  principal  reason  why  oats  are  less  digestible 
than  corn  and  too  bulky  for  pigs  fed  for  rapid  gains. 

Oats  versus  corn. 

Two  experiments  by  Eastwood  1  at  the  Ohio  Experi- 
ment Station  furnish  a  very  reliable  test  for  contrasting 
the  results  from  feeding  corn  and  oats  to  growing  pigs. 
The  averaged  figures  are  stated  in  Table  CXXXV. 

TABLE  CXXXV.  —  OATS  VERSUS  CORN 
(Av.  2  Exps.) 


RATIONS,  PROPORTIONS 
BY  WEIGHT 

TOTAL 
NUMBER 
PIGS 

AVERAGE 
LENGTH  OF 
EXPERI- 
MENTS 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

FEED  EATEN 
FOR  EACH 
100  LB.  GAIN 

9  ground  corn     . 
1  tankage  .     .     . 

10 

days 

105 

Ib. 

103 

Ib. 

1.63 

Ib. 

381.78  corn 
42.42  tank. 

9  ground  oats 
1  tankage  .     .     . 

10 

105 

99 

1.04 

480.  10  oats 
53.34  tank. 

In  these  experiments  the  corn-fed  pigs  gained  .59  pound 
daily  faster  than  the  oat-fed  animals.  The  amount  of 
feed  required  to  produce  100  pounds  of  gain  showed 
100  pounds  of  corn  equal  to  125  pounds  of  oats.  In 
addition,  a  smaller  quantity  of  tankage  was  eaten  for  a 
unit  of  gain  by  those  fed  corn. 

Experiments  by  Henry  2  at  the  Wisconsin  Experiment 
1  Bull.  268.  2  Wis.  An.  Rpt.,  1889. 


Other  Cereal  Grains  for  Growing  Pigs 


295 


Station  and  Eastwood  l  at  the  Ohio  Station  indicate  that 
as  the  proportion  of  oats  in  the  ration  is  increased  the 
efficiency  of  the  ration  is  reduced.  The  detailed  results 
of  these  experiments  are  shown  in  Table  CXXXVI. 

TABLE   CXXXVI.  —  THE  EFFECT  OF  FEEDING  DIFFERENT 
PROPORTIONS  OF  OATS  WITH  CORN 


RATIONS,  PROPOR- 
TIONS BY  WEIGHT 

NUMBER 
PIGS 

LENGTH 
OF  EX- 
PERIMENTS 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

FEED  EATEN  FOR 
EACH  100  LB.  GAIN 

1  whole  oats 
2  corn-meal 

3 

days 

60 

Ib. 

115 

Ib. 

.82 

Ib. 

164  oats 
328  corn 

2  whole  oats 
1  corn-meal 

3 

60 

115 

.68 

376  oats 
188  corn 

1  ground  oats 
2  corn-meal 

3 

60 

115 

1.27 

134  oats 
268  corn 

2  ground  oats 
1  corn-meal 

3 

60 

115 

1.03 

286  oats 
143  corn 

3  ground  oats 
6  ground  corn 
1  tankage 

5 

84 

152 

1.57 

137.4  oats 
274.8  corn 
45.8  tankage 

6  ground  oats 
3  ground  corn 
1  tankage 

5 

84 

148 

1.49 

283.9  oats 
141.9  corn 
47.3  tankage 

In  every  instance,  as  the  proportion  of  oats  was  in- 
creased, the  feed  consumption  and  the  rate  of  gain  de- 
creased. In  the  first  Wisconsin  experiment,  when  the  oats 
were  unground,  100  pounds  of  corn-meal  proved  equal  to 
151  pounds  of  whole  oats.  When  the  oats  were  ground, 
100  pounds  of  corn  were  equivalent  to  121  pounds  of  oats. 
The  results  of  the  Ohio  experiment  showed  100  pounds  of 
corn  equal  to  110  pounds  of  oats  in  producing  a  given 
1  Bull.  268. 


296  Pork  Production 

gain.  In  addition,  a  larger  amount  of  tankage  was  eaten 
for  a  given  gain  in  the  ration  containing  the  larger  pro- 
portion of  oats.  The  two  Wisconsin  experiments  suggest 
what  general  practice  has  confirmed,  viz.,  that  oats  must 
be  ground  for  best  results. 

Like  other  grains,  oats  vary  considerably  in  feeding 
value.  As  a  rule,  that  produced  in  Canada  and  the 
northern  states  is  heavier  and  consequently  higher  in 
feeding  value  than  that  grown  farther  south. 

KAFIR,    MILO,    CANE 

Feeding  experiments  generally  have  shown  that  kafir, 
milo,  and  cane,  or  sweet  sorghum,  are  not  as  efficient  as 
corn.  Because  of  the  adaptability  of  these  crops  to 
semi-arid  conditions,  however,  their  usefulness  in  pork 
production  is  large. 

Kafir  versus  corn. 

Wheeler  1  at  the  Kansas  Station  conducted  two  short 
experiments  in  which  kafir  meal  and  corn-meal  were 
compared  for  fattening  pigs  in  the  dry  lot.  In  each  test 
the  grains  were  supplemented  with  ground  soybeans. 
The  figures  in  Table  C XXXVII  show  the  averaged 
results. 

These  results  indicate  that  kafir  ranks  close  to  corn  as 
a  fattening  feed.  The  difference  here  shown,  however, 
would  probably  have  been  more  favorable  to  the  corn 
ration  if  the  amount  of  feed  in  one  of  the  experiments 
had  not  been  limited.  Kafir  as  a  rule  is  less  palatable 
than  corn,  and  with  unrestricted  rations,  considerably 
more  corn  than  kafir  is  consumed. 

*  Bull.  192. 


Other  Cereal  Grains  for  Growing  Pigs 


297 


TABLE  CXXXVII.  —  KAFIR   MEAL  VERSUS  CORN-MEAL 
(Av.  2  Exps.) 


RATIONS,  PROPORTIONS 
BY  WEIGHT 

TOTAL 
NUMBER 
PIGS 

AVERAGE 
LENGTH 
OF  EX- 
PERIMENT 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

FEED 
EATEN  FOR 
EACH  100 
LB.  GAIN 

4  kafir  meal 
1  soybean  meal  .     . 

24 

days 

28 

Ib. 

159 

Ib. 

1.23 

Ib. 

506 

4  corn-meal 
1  soybean  meal  . 

24 

28 

155 

1.26 

494 

Cane,  milo,  kafir,  kaoliang,  andfeterita  versus  corn. 

The  results  of  two  rather  extensive  experiments  con- 
ducted at  the  Hays  Branch  Experiment  Station,  Kansas,1 
where  grains  adapted  to  the  western  part  of  the  state  were 
compared  with  corn,  are  detailed  in  Table  C XXXVIII. 

TABLE   CXXXVIII.  —  A  COMPARISON  OF  DIFFERENT  GRAINS 
FOR  FATTENING  PIGS 


GRAINS 

NUMBER 
PIGS 

LENGTH  OF 
EXPERIMENT 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

TOTAL  FEED 
EATEN 
EACH  100 
LB.  GAIN 

Sorghum  (cane)  . 
Milo  

10 

10 

days 

60 
60 

Ib. 
125 
124 

Ib. 

1.70 
1.70 

Ib. 
440 
390 

Kafir  .... 
Corn  .... 

10 
10 

60 
60 

125 
125 

1.80 
2.00 

390 
370 

Kaoliang  .  .  . 
Milo  

10 
10 

74 
74 

140 
140 

1.31 
1.43 

572 
523 

Kafir  .... 
Feterita  .  .  . 
Corn  .... 

10 
10 
10 

74 
74 
74 

140 
140 
140 

1.40 
1.36 
1.46 

534 
549 
514 

1  First  table  —  Wright,  Bull.  192.  Second  table  —  Cochel, 
Kansas  Industrialist,  May,  1915,  and  Henry  and  Morrison's 
"Feeds  and  Feeding." 


298 


Pork  Production 


In  both  experiments  the  grain  fed  in  each  lot  was  supple- 
mented by  30  per  cent  shorts  and  5  to  8  per  cent  tank- 
age. In  all  cases,  also,  the  grains  were  reduced  to  a  meal. 

In  both  experiments  the  corn  ration  produced  the  most 
rapid  gains,  with  the  least  total  feed  consumed  for  a  unit 
of  gain.  But  the  excellent  showing  of  the  other  grains 
should  furnish  much  encouragement  to  the  hog-raiser 
who  cannot  grow  corn  successfully,  but  does  produce 
these  other  crops  in  quantity. 

On  the  average,  the  results  showed  milo  and  kafir  to 
be  practically  equal  in  feeding  value,  both  grains  being 
considerably  superior  to  either  kaoliang  or  feterita.  In 
the  first  experiment  sorghum  produced  as  rapid  gains  as 
milo,  but  with  the  latter  more  feed  was  required  for  a 
unit  of  gain. 

In  an  experiment  at  the  Nebraska  Experiment  Station, 
Snyder  and  Burnett l  compared  rations  of  corn  and  cane, 
with  a  combination  of  both,  fed  in  each  case  with  10  per 
cent  chopped  alfalfa  hay. 

TABLE  CXXXIX.  —  SORGHUM  VERSUS  SORGHUM  AND  CORN 


GRAINS 

NUMBER 
OF  PIGS 

LENGTH  OF 
EXPERI- 
MENTS 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL, 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 

PER  PlOJ 

GRAIN 
EATEN  FOR 
EACH  100 
LB.  GAIN 

Corn      .... 

10 

days 

63 

H>. 

141 

Ib. 

1.69 

#>. 

386 

£  corn 
£  cane  (sorghum) 

10 

63 

140 

1.43 

442 

Cane  (sorghum)  . 

10 

63 

140 

1.15 

548 

The  combination  of  cane  and  corn  gave  very  much 
better  results  than  cane  alone. 

i  Bull.  124. 


Other  Cereal  Grains  for  Growing  Pigs 


299 


Kaoliang  meal  and  corn-meal  were  compared  by 
Wilson l  at  the  South  Dakota  Experiment  Station  in 
two  trials,  results  of  which  are  averaged  in  Table  CXL.  In 
one  of  the  experiments  the  grains  were  fed  alone,  while 
in  the  other  the  pigs  were  given  access  to  alfalfa  hay 
in  a  rack. 

TABLE  CXL.  —  KAOLIANG  MEAL  VERSUS  CORN-MEAL 
(Av.  2  trials) 


GRAINS 

TOTAL 
NUMBER 

AVERAGE 
LENGTH 
OF  EX- 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 

GRAIN 
EATEN  FOR 
EACH  100 

PERIMENTS 

PER  PIG 

PER  PIG 

LB.  GAIN 

days 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Kaoliang  meal    .     . 

8 

55 

207 

.925 

621 

Corn-meal      .     .     . 

8 

55 

196 

1.255 

492 

Very  fair  gains  were  made  on  the  kaoliang  ration, 
but  the  amount  of  feed  required  to  produce  100  pounds 
of  gain  was  excessive. 


1  Bull.  157. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

CORN   SUBSTITUTES    AND   OTHER   BY-PROD- 
UCTS  FOR   GROWING   AND   FATTENING   PIGS 

A  TIME  may  come,  even  in  the  corn-belt,  when  corn 
will  be  regarded  as  too  valuable  to  make  its  general  use 
for  live-stock  feeding  either  patriotic  or  profitable.  It 
may  be  many  years  under  normal  conditions  before  this 
situation  is  realized,  but  the  more  or  less  restricted  area 
of  the  corn-belt,  the  rapid  increase  in  the  use  of  corn 
for  human  food  and  other  commercial  purposes,  and  the 
rate  at  which  the  population  of  the  country  is  increas- 
ing in  density,  are  conditions  which  point  to  an  increas- 
ing scarcity  of  all  cereal  grains  for  feeding  purposes  in  the 
future. 

CORN   BY-PRODUCTS 

The  three  most  commonly  used  corn  by-products  for 
pig-feeding  #re  hominy  feed,  corn  feed  meal,  and  corn 
germ  meal.  In  addition,  gluten  feed  and  gluten  meal  have 
been  employed  to  a  limited  extent. 

Hominy  feed. 

This  by-product  is  officially  designated  either  hominy 
feed,  hominy  meal,  or  hominy  chop.  It  is  tentatively  de- 
fined as  follows  by  the  Association  of  Feed  Control  Officials 
of  the  United  States :  "  A  kiln-dried  mixture  of  the  mill 
run  bran  coating,  the  mill  run  germ,  with  or  without  a 

300 


Corn  Substitutes  for  Growing  Pigs 


301 


partial  extraction  of  the  oil,  and  a  part  of  the  starchy 
portion  of  the  white  corn  kernel  obtained  in  the  manu- 
facture of  hominy,  hominy  grits  and  corn  germ  meal 
by  the  degerminating  process."  Yellow  hominy  feed  is 
identical  to  the  above  except  that  it  is  manufactured 
from  yellow  corn. 

Hominy  feed  has  a  composition  very  similar  to  corn 
and  is  to  be  regarded,  therefore,  as  a  substitute  and  not 
a  supplement  for  corn.  Being  low  in  protein  and  rich 
in  carbohydrates,  it  must  be  balanced,  like  corn,  by  the 
addition  of  a  feed  rich  in  protein  if  satisfactory  results 
are  obtained  from  it. 

From  1909  to  1911,  Skinner  and  King  of  the  Indiana 
Experiment  Station  l  conducted  seven  trials  in  each  of 
which  corn-meal  and  hominy  meal  were  compared  for 
fattening  pigs  in  the  dry  lot.  In  three  of  the  experi- 
ments, 33  per  cent  of  shorts  was  fed  to  balance  the  rations 
and  in  four  5  per  cent  of  tankage.  In  all  cases  the  rations 
were  hand-fed  in  the  form  of  a  thick  slop.  The  sum- 
marized results  are  shown  in  Table  CXLI. 

TABLE  CXLI.  —  HOMINY  MEAL  VERSUS  CORN-MEAL 
(Av.  7  trials) 


RATIONS 

TOTAL 
NUMBER 
PIGS 

AVERAGE 
LENGTH 
OF  EX- 
PERIMENTS 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

TOTAL 
FEED 
EATEN  FOR 
EACH  100 
LB.  GAIN 

days 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Corn-meal  and  sup- 

plement      ... 

51 

87 

112 

.96 

514 

Hominy    meal    and 

supplement  .     .     . 

50 

87 

110 

1.15 

429 

Bull.  158. 


302 


Pork  Production 


In  each  of  the  seven  experiments,  the  pigs  fed  the 
hominy  meal  gained  faster,  and  with  a  smaller  expendi- 
ture of  feed  for  a  unit  of  gain,  than  did  those  fed  the  corn- 
meal.  On  the  average,  the  gains  from  the  former  ration 
were  nearly  20  per  cent  faster,  and  100  pounds  of  the 
hominy  ration  equaled  119  pounds  of  the  corn  ration. 

More  recent  feeding  experiments,  however,  show  a 
higher  feeding  value  for  corn  than  for  hominy.  Five 
trials  at  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station  and  two  at  the 
Indiana  Station  since  1916  gave  uniformly  better  results 
from  corn  than  from  hominy,  the  averaged  conclusions 
of  which  are  shown  in  Table  CXLII.  In  four  of  the  Iowa 
experiments  the  pigs  had  access  to  blue-grass  pasture, 
and  in  one  they  were  on  rape.  In  the  Indiana  trials 
the  pigs  were  fed  in  dry  lots.  Shelled  corn  was  fed  in 
five  of  the  trials  and  ground  corn  in  two.  In  all  cases 
the  feeds  were  properly  supplemented  in  self-feeders. 

TABLE  CXLII.  —  HOMINY  MEAL  VERSUS  CORN  FOR  GROWING 
AND  FATTENING  Pias1 

(Av.  7  trials) 


RATIONS 

TOTAL 
NUMBER 
Piaa 

AVERAGE 
LENGTH 

OP 

EXPERI- 
MENT 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

CONCEN- 
TRATES 
EATEN 
FOR  EACH 
100  LB. 
GAIN 

days 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Corn  and  supplement    . 

50 

91 

71 

1.396 

398.9 

Hominy  and  supplement 

50 

91 

71 

1.289 

421.3 

In  every  one  of  the  experiments  here  summarized,  a 
smaller  total  amount  of  feed  was  required  to  produce 

1  Eward  and  Dunn,  Iowa  Exp.  Sta.  Circ.  letter ;  Skinner  and 
Starr,  Ind.  Exp.  Sta.,  Circ.  letter. 


Corn  Substitutes  for  Growing  Pigs  303 

100  pounds  of  gain  with  the  corn  than  with  the  hominy 
ration.  In  every  instance  but  one,  also,  the  rate  of  gain 
was  faster  on  the  corn  ration.  On  the  average,  100 
pounds  of  the  corn  was  equivalent  to  105  pounds  of  the 
hominy  ration.  A  slightly  smaller  proportion  of  supple- 
ment was  eaten,  however,  by  the  pigs  receiving  the 
hominy.  The  rate  of  gain  was,  on  the  average,  practi- 
cally 8  per  cent  faster  on  the  corn  ration. 

A  modification  of  the  methods  of  manufacturing 
hominy  feed  is  probably  responsible  for  the  failure  of 
this  product  to  give  as  good  results  in  these  recent  experi- 
ments as  it  did  in  those  reported  in  Table  CXLI.  The 
analyses  of  the  hominy  used  in  the  Indiana  trials  showed 
that  the  feed  contained  more  fat  and  less  fiber  than  that 
in  the  1917  and  1918  experiments.  The  germ  which 
formerly  went  into  the  hominy  entire  is  now  usually 
pressed  for  its  oil  and  the  remaining  product  either  put 
back  with  the  other  by-products  or  sold  alone  as  corn 
germ  meal. 

Corn  feed  meal. 

The  Association  of  Feed  Control  Officials  of  the  United 
States  defines  this  product  as  follows  :  "  Corn  Feed  Meal 
is  the  by-product  obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  cracked 
corn,  with  or  without  aspiration  products  added  to  the 
siftings,  and  is  the  by-product  obtained  in  the  manu- 
facture of  table  meal  from  the  whole  grain  by  the  non- 
degerminating  process."  This  is  a  relatively  new  feed  and 
the  processes  in  its  manufacture  are  probably  not  uniform. 

Analyses  of  this  feed  indicate  that  it  is  similar  to  corn 
in  composition,  but  a  little  richer  in  protein  and  fiber 
with  a  little  less  of  nitrogen-free-extract.  Like  hominy, 
it  must  be  fed  with  a  protein  supplement  for  good  results. 


304 


P'ork  Production 


In  two  series  of  experiments  at  the  Indiana  Experi- 
ment Station  in  1917-18,  Skinner  and  Starr  l  made  four 
comparisons  of  different  corn  feed  meals  with  corn  for 
fattening  well-grown  shotes  in  the  dry  lot.  In  each  trial 
the  corn  was  ground.  The  rations  in  all  cases  were  supple- 
mented with  tankage,  the  feeds  being  supplied  in  separate 
compartments  of  a  self-feeder.  The  summarized  results 
are  shown  in  Table  CXLIII. 

TABLE  CXLIII.  —  CORN  FEED  MEAL  VERSUS  CORN-MEAL  FOR 
FATTENING  PIGS 

(Av.  4  trials) 


RATIONS 

TOTAL, 

NUMBER 

PlG8 

AVERAGE 
LENGTH 
OP  EX- 
PERIMENTS 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

TOTAL 
FEED 
EATEN  FOR 
EACH  100 
LB.  GAIN 

days 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Corn  and  tankage  . 

20 

63 

130 

1.81 

467 

Corn  feed  meal  and 

tankage  .     . 

40 

C3 

130 

1.89 

439 

The  three  brands  of  corn  feed  meal  in  the  first  experi- 
ment gave  very  uniform  results.  In  every  case  the  pigs 
fed  this  corn  substitute  gained  a  little  faster  than  they  did 
on  corn,  while  the  average  amount  of  feed  required  to 
produce  100  pounds  of  gain  was  also  less.  These  results 
indicate  that  corn  feed  meal  is  practically  equal  to  corn 
when  fed  under  the  conditions  of  this  experiment. 

Corn  germ  meal. 

This  by-product  was  formerly  referred  to  as  germ  oil 
meal,  which  is  obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  starch, 


1  Circ.  letters. 


Corn  Substitutes  for  Growing  Pigs 


305 


glucose,  and  other  corn  products.  It  represents  the  germ 
layer  of  the -corn  kernel  from  which  part  of  the  oil  has 
been  extracted.  Two  methods  are  employed  in  the 
separation  of  the  germ  from  the  kernel.  In  the  manu- 
facture of  starch,  the  germ  is  usually  removed  by  the  use 
of  a  weak  water  solution  of  sulfur ous  acid,  while  in  the 
making  of  hominy  it  is  removed  by  mechanical  processes. 
Chemical  analysis  of  the  feeds  in  the  first  Indiana  feed- 
ing trial  showed  that  the  corn  germ  meals  were  consider- 
ably richer  in  protein  than  corn,  and  further,  that  the 
starch  corn  germ  meal  contained  6  per  cent  more  protein 
than  the  hominy  corn  germ  meal.  Judging  from  the 
chemical  analyses  given  in  the  following  table,  both  feeds 
contain  sufficient  protein  to  dispense  with  the  use  of  any 
supplement. 

TABLE  CXLIV.  —  COMPOSITION  OF   CORN  GERM   MEALS  AND 
CORN  (From  Ind.  State  Chemist) 


FEEDS 

WATER 

PROTEIN 

CARBOHYDRATES 

FATS 

ASH 

Crude 
fiber 

Nitrogen- 
free-extract 

Starch 
Corn  germ  meal  . 

9.3 

24.6 

8.6 

45.3 

10.1 

2.1 

Hominy 
Corn  germ  meal  . 

4.6 

18.5 

7.1 

56.2 

6.3 

7.3 

Corn-meal  .     .     . 

11.5 

9.4 

2.0 

71.5 

4.1 

1.5 

Preliminary  investigations  by  Skinner  and  Starr  1  at 
the  Indiana  Experiment  Station  suggest  the  possibilities 
in  the  use  of  corn  germ  meal  as  a  substitute  for  corn.  Two 


1  Circ.  letter. 


306 


Pork  Production 


experiments  were  conducted  with  the  results  shown  in 
Table  CXLV.  The  pigs  used  were  well-grown  shotes 
which  were  confined  to  dry  lots  during  the  trials.  In 
all  cases  each  feed  was  given  in  a,  separate  compartment 
of  the  self-feeder  unless  stated  otherwise  in  the  table. 
The  corn  germ  meal  from  the  starch  factories  is  referred  to 
in  these  experiments  as  starch  corn  germ  meal,  while  that 
from  the  hominy  mills  is  called  hominy  corn  germ  meal. 

TABLE  CXLV.  —  CORN    GERM  MEAL    AS    A    SUBSTITUTE   FOR 

CORN 

Ind.  Exp.  Sta.  Aug.  10-Oct.  9,  1917  —  60  days. 


RATIONS,  SELF-FED,  FREE 
CHOICE 

NUMBER 
PIGS 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN  PER 
PIG 

FEED  EATEN  FOR  EACH  100  LB. 
GAIN 

Starch  corn  germ  meal    . 

10 

Ib. 

.28 

Ib. 
884.6  starch  corn  germ  meal 

Starch  corn  germ  meal 
Corn-meal     

10 

1.65 

55.6  starch  corn  germ  meal 
390.1  corn-meal 

Starch  corn  germ  meal 
Tankage 

10 

675 

327.4  starch  corn  germ  meal 
251  5  tankage 

Hominy  corn  germ  meal 

10 

1.50 

419  hominy  corn  germ  meal 

Corn-meal 
Tankage        .     . 

10 

1  80 

711  corn-meal 
41  tankage 

Ind.  Exp.  Sta.  Nov.  6,  1917-Jan.  10,  1918  —  65  days 


Starch  corn  germ  meal    . 

7 

.03 

8973  starch  corn  germ  meal 

Mixture  1  part  starch 
corn  germ  meal  and 
1  part  corn-meal  .  . 

7 

.75 

280   starch  corn  germ  meal 
280  corn-meal 

Mixture  1  part  starch 
corn  germ  meal  and 
3  parts  corn-meal  . 

7 

1.35 

199  starch  corn  germ  meal 
595  corn-meal 

Hominy  corn  germ  meal 

7 

1.23 

530  hominy  corn  germ  meal 

Corn-meal 
Tankage 

7 

1  83 

488  corn-meal 
27.4  tankage 

Corn  Substitutes  for  Growing  Pigs  307 

In  both  experiments  the  pigs  receiving  the  starch  corn 
germ  meal  alone  did  little  more  than  maintain  themselves. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  gains  by  the  pigs  receiving  the 
hominy  corn  germ  rneal  were  on  the  average  1 .36  pounds 
daily.  Feeding  both  starch  corn  germ  meal  and  corn  in 
separate  compartments  of  the  self-feeder  resulted  in  the 
pigs  eating  very  little  of  the  former.  When  it  was  fed 
with  tankage,  free-choice,  the  pigs  ate  nearly  as  much 
tankage  as  they  did  starch  corn  germ  meal. 

The  unsatisfactory  results  obtained  in  these  trials 
from  feeding  corn  germ  meal  as  maunfactured  by  the 
starch  factories  were  obviously  due  to  its  unpalatability. 
The  use  of  acid  in  loosening  the  germ  layer  in  its  manu- 
facture was  believed  to  be  the  reason  why  it  was  not  eaten 
with  relish.  Hominy  corn  germ  meal  proved  to  be  nearly 
as  palatable  as  corn. 

Corn  gluten  meal  and  corn  gluten  feed. 

The  part  of  the  corn  kernel  which  remains  after  the 
removal  of  most  of  the  starch,  germ,  and  bran  in  the  manu- 
facture of  corn-starch  and  glucose  is  officially  named 
corn  gluten  meal.  It  contains  most  of  the  corn  gluten. 
It  may  or  may  not  contain  the  so-called  corn  solubles 
which  represent  the  part  of  the  protein  and  mineral 
phosphates  which  go  into  solution  in  the  processes  of 
separation.  Corn  gluten  feed  is  the  same  as  corn  gluten 
meal  with  the  bran  added.  Gluten  feed  is  consequently 
more  bulky  and  less  digestible  than  gluten  meal. 

Gluten  feed  contains  from  17  to  25  per  cent  of  protein, 
and  gluten  meal  from  27  to  36  per  cent.  Although 
sufficiently  rich  in  protein  to  suggest  large  usefulness 
for  balancing  a  corn  ration,  they  have  never  proved  popu- 
lar in  practice,  and  are  generally  regarded  as  being  more 


308 


Pork  Production 


palatable  and  appropriate  for  cattle  than  for  hogs.    Very 
much  more  gluten  feed  is  sold  than  gluten  meal. 

In  1917  Evvard  and  Dunn  l  at  the  Iowa  Experiment 
Station  conducted  feeding  trials  in  which  45-  to  50-pound 
pigs  on  rape  were  fed  rations  in  which  gluten  feed  was 
used  both  as  a  supplement  to  and  a  substitute  for  corn. 
The  results  from  five  of  the  rations  in  which  all  of  the 
feeds  were  supplied  separately  in  self-feeders  are  shown 
in  Table  CXLVI. 

TABLE  CXLVI.  —  GLUTEN  FEED  AS  A  SUBSTITUTE  AND  A  SUP- 
PLEMENT TO  CORN  FOR  FATTENING  PIGS  ON  RAPE 


RATIONS,  SELF-FED, 
FREE  CHOICE 

NUMBER 

OF   PlGS 

LENGTH 
OF  EX- 
PERIMENT 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

FEED  CONSUMED 
FOR  EACH  100  LB. 
GAIN 

Corn      .... 

7 

days 

90 

Ib. 

.84 

Ib. 

341  corn 

Gluten  feed     .     . 

7 

90 

.70 

372  gluten  feed 

Corn      .... 
Tankage     .     .     . 

7 

90 

1.25 

309  corn 
40  tankage 

Gluten  feed 
Tankage     .     .     . 

7 

90 

.86 

330  gluten  feed 
67  tankage 

Corn 
Gluten  feed     .     . 

7 

90 

.78 

331  corn 
22  gluten  feed 

The  rations  in  which  gluten  feed  was  given  alone,  and 
also  with  tankage,  did  not  give  as  good  results  as  did 
corresponding  rations  in  which  corn  was  fed.  In  fact, 
corn  alone  gave  better  results  than  the  ration  of  gluten 
feed  and  tankage  or  of  gluten  feed  and  corn.  The 
authors  concluded  that  for  growing  and  fattening  pigs 
fed  full  rations  on  forage,  the  gluten  feed  contained  too 

i  Ciro.  letter. 


Corn  Substitutes  for  Growing  Pigs  309 

much  fiber  to  be  satisfactory.  Chemical  studies  have 
indicated,  also,  that  the  kind  of  proteins  and  ash  or 
mineral  ingredients  contained  in  corn  by-products  gen- 
erally are  not  of  a  nature  most  effectively  to  balance 
the  deficiencies  of  corn  itself. 

PEANUTS 

Peanuts  are  a  valuable  hog  forage  crop  in  the  South. 
(See  Chapter  XVIII .)  The  seed  when  fed  alone,  however, 
produces  very  soft  pork  which  is  sharply  discriminated 
against  by  the  packer.  The  use  of  peanuts  for  the 
production  of  oil  has  largely  developed  in  recent  years, 
and  has  resulted  in  two  by-products  which  promise  con- 
siderable value  for  pork-production,  especially  in  the 
South.  These  are  peanut  oil  meal  and  unhulled  peanut 
oil  feed.  Peanut  oil  meal  is  merely  the  hulled  and  ground 
peanut  minus  most  of  the  oil.  Unhulled  peanut  oil  feed 
is  the  unhulled  and  ground  peanut  minus  the  oil.  The 
latter  sometimes  goes  by  the  name  ground  whole  pressed 
peanuts. 

Peanut  oil  meal  as  a  supplement  to  milo. 

At  the  Texas  Experiment  Station,  Burk  l  studied  the 
value  of  these  peanut  by-products  when  fed  as  supple- 
ments to  milo  chop  to  fattening  pigs  in  the  dry  lot.  The 
peanut  meal  contained  42  per  cent  protein,  about  the 
same  as  cottonseed  meal,  and  8.3  per  cent  fiber.  The 
ground  whole  pressed  peanuts  contained  36  per  cent 
protein  and  22  per  cent  fiber.  The  rations  were  hand- 
fed  and  the  quantity  of  the  mixed  ration  given  was  gov- 
erned by  the  appetite  of  the  pigs.  The  results  are  shown 
in  Table  CXLVII. 

*  Bull.  201, 


310 


Pork  Production 


TABLE  CXLVII.  —  PEANUT  OIL  MEAL  AND  UNHULLED  PEANUT 
OIL  FEED  AS  SUPPLEMENTS  TO  MILO 


RATIONS,  PROPORTIONS 
BY  WEIGHT 

NUMBER 
OF  PIGS 

LENGTH 
OF  EX- 
PERIMENT 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL, 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

TOTAL  FEED 
EATEN  FOR 
EACH  100  LB. 
GAIN 

Milo  chops  l     .     . 

10 

days 

77 

Ib. 
124.6 

Ib. 

.727 

Ib. 

648 

6  milo  chops 
1  cottonseed  meal 

10 

77 

125.8 

1.260 

417 

10  milo  chops 
1  meat  meal  . 

10 

77 

124.8 

1.180 

455 

7  milo  chops, 
1  peanut  meal 

10 

77 

125.6 

1.210 

434 

2%  milo  chops 
1     ground     whole 
pressed  peanuts 

10 

77 

125.8 

1.228 

428 

1  milo  chops 
1  peanut  meal 

10 

77  • 

129.6 

1.424 

368 

The  pork  produced  by  the  peanut  rations  was  pro- 
nounced satisfactory  by  the  packers.  As  indicated  by 
the  rate  and  economy  of  gains,  the  peanut  feeds  made  an 
excellent  showing.  That  milo  is  too  carbonaceous  to 
give  good  results  when  fed  alone  is  strikingly  shown  by 
comparing  the  gains  on  this  ration  with  those  made  in 
the  lots  in  which  protein  supplements  were  fed.  The  fact 
that  the  milo  rations  when  balanced  with  peanut  meal 
or  ground  whole  pressed  peanuts  produced  faster  gains 
with  less  feed  than  the  ration  balanced  with  meat-meal 
(tankage),  is  a  strong  testimony  of  the  feeding  value  of 
these  by-products.  No  injurious  or  poisonous  effects 
whatever  were  noted  among  the  pigs  fed  this  proportion 
of  cottonseed  meal.  (See  p.  317.) 

1  Milo  chops  =  coarsely  ground  milo  seedg. 


PLATE  VIII.  —  Above,  Champion  pen  Duroc-Jersey  barrows, 
International  1918 ;  below,  1.  Carcass  of  a  model  bacon  hog.  (Bull. 
10,  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Dominion  of  Canada.)  2.  Number  1  Wiltshire 
side  (Bull.  10,  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Dominion  of  Canada) ;  3.  Pork  cuts, 
lard  hog  (Bull.  147,  111.  Exp.  Sta.) ;  1.  Long-cut  ham;  2.  Loin;  3. 
Belly  ;  4.  Picnicbutt ;  5.  Boston  butt ;  6.  Jowl ;  7.  Hock ;  8.  Fat  back  ; 
9.  Clear  plate ;  2,  8.  Back ;  2,  3,  8.  Side  ;  4,  7.  Picnic  shoulder ;  5,  9. 
Shoulder  butt ;  8,  9.  Long  fat  back ;  4,  5,  7,  9.  Rough  shoulder. 


Corn  Substitutes  for  Growing  Pigs 


311 


Peanut  meal  versus  linseed-oil  meal  versus  tankage. 

Evvard  l  of  the  Iowa  Station  fed  peanut  meal  in  com- 
parison with  other  supplements  to  growing  pigs  on  blue- 
grass.  The  feeds  in  each  lot  were  supplied  separately 
in  self-feeders.  Each  lot  of  pigs  was  fed  to  the  average 
weight  of  165  pounds  before  the  experiment  for  that  lot 
closed.  The  rations  and  the  gains  are  shown  in  Table 
CXLVIII. 

TABLE  CXLVIII. — PEANUT  MEAL  VERSUS  LINSEED-OIL  MEAL, 
TANKAGE,  AND  OAT-MEAL  AS  SUPPLEMENTS  TO  CORN 


RATIONS,  SELF-FED 
FREE-CHOICE 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

DAYS  TO 
REACH 
WEIGHT 
OF  165  LB. 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN  PER 
PIG 

FEED  EATEN  FOR  EACH 
100  LB.  GAIN 

Shelled  corn  2 
Tankage 

47 

89 

Ib. 
1.41 

323  corn 
40  tankage 

Shelled  corn 
Linseed-oil  meal 

47 

104 

1.14 

362  corn 
21  linseed-oil  m. 

Shelled  corn 
Peanut  meal 

47 

89 

1.33 

281  corn 
88  peanut  meal 

Shelled  corn 
Oat-meal  3 

47 

100 

1.19 

288  corn 
76  oat-meal 

The  peanut  meal  gave  results  in  this  experiment  second 
only  to  tankage.  The  author  of  the  experiment  calcu- 
lated the  peanut  meal  to  have  a  money  value  of  $64.20 
a  ton  when  corn  is  valued  at  $1.12  a  bushel  and  tankage 
at  $100  a  ton,  when  fed  under  the  conditions  of  this  experi- 
ment. The  peanut  meal  was  more  palatable  than  the 

1  Circ.  letter. 

2  Average  for  two  lots  fed  different  brands  of  tankage. 

3  A  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of  oat-meal,  probably  the 
same  as  oat  middlings  or  oat  shorts. 


312  Pork  Production 

linseed-oil  meal  or  oat-meal.  The  oat-meal  by-product 
gave  very  good  results,  but  was  not  eaten  with  relish, 
especially  in  the  first  part  of  the  experiment. 

RICE   PRODUCTS 

In  the  manufacture  of  table  rice,  three  by-products 
are  produced — rice  bran,  rice  polish,  and  rice  hulls. 
The  last  feed  contains  an  average  of  about  35  per  cent 
fiber  and  is  too  bulky  and  hard  to  digest  to  be  suitable 
in  any  quantity  for  pig-feeding.  Rice  bran,  also,  con- 
tains from  12  to  16  per  cent  fiber  and  is  consequently 
more  bulky  than  wheat  bran.  Both  rice  bran  and  rice 
polish  are  rather  extensively  used  in  the  South.  Being 
carbonaceous  like  corn,  they  require  about  the  same  pro- 
portion of  protein  feeds  in  order  to  insure  the  best  results. 

Rice  bran  and  rice  polish  versus  corn. 

Dvorachek  and  Fowler  l  of  the  Arkansas  Experiment 
Station  conducted  four  feeding  experiments  in  each  of 
which  rice  bran  and  rice  polish  were  compared  with  corn 
chops  (ground  corn)  for  fattening  pigs  in  the  dry  lot. 
On  one  of  the  trials  the  feeds  were  each  given  without 
supplement.  In  the  other  three  from  9  to  10  per  cent 
of  the  rations  was  tankage.  The  results  of  these  four 
experiments  are  averaged  in  Table  CXLIX. 

The  author  of  the  experiments  stated  that  none  of  the 
pigs  fed  the  rice  products  showed  evidences  of  imperfect 
nutrition.  He  also  stated  that  rice  bran,  due  to  its  tend- 
ency to  become  rancid  in  hot  weather,  could  not  be  fed 
economically  during  the  summer.  It  was  also  criticized 
for  being  too  bulky  to  insure  a  good  finish  on  fattening 

i  Bull.  128. 


Corn  Substitutes  for  Growing  Pigs 


313 


pigs.  Despite  these  faults,  however,  rice  bran  gave 
very  good  results  in  these  experiments.  Although  the 
rice  polish  was  not  so  palatable  as  the  corn,  especially 
in  the  latter  stages  of  fattening,  and  although  it  caused 
severe  scouring  when  not  soaked  from  twelve  to  twenty- 
four  hours  before  feeding,  the  pigs  made  faster  and  more 
economical  gains  than  did  those  fed  corn  chops. 

TABLE    CXLIX.  —  RICE     BRAN    AND     RICE    POLISH    VERSUS 
CORN  CHOP  (Av.  4  Exps.) 


FEEDS 

TOTAL 
NUMBER 
PIGS 

AVERAGE 
LENGTH 
OF  EX- 
PERIMENTS 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL, 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

TOTAL 
FEED 
EATEN  FOR 
EACH  100 
LB.  GAIN 

Corn  chops  and  sup- 
plement .  .  . 

21 

days 

76 

Ib. 

106 

Ib. 

1.290 

Ib. 

426 

Rice  bran  and  sup- 
plement .  .  . 

21 

76 

106 

1.255 

445 

Rice  polish  and  sup- 
plement .  .  . 

21 

76 

106 

1840 

360 

Extensive  studies  by  Duggar  l  at  the  Alabama  Experi- 
ment Station  in  which  rations  containing  corn-meal  as 
the  basis  were  compared  with  those  containing  rice  polish 
showed  uniformly  faster  and  usually  cheaper  gains 
from  the  rice  polish  than  from  the  corn-meal.  The 
averaged  results  showed  373  pounds  of  rice  polish  equiva- 
lent to  474  pounds  of  corn-meal. 

Rice  bran  versus  peanuts  and  corn. 

Additional  evidence  on  the  feeding  value  of  rice  bran  is 
furnished  by  an  experiment  by  Burns.2  This  test  was 

122.  *  Ibid.,  131. 


314 


Pork  Production 


divided  into  two  periods  with  an  intervening  interval  of 
14  days.  The  corn  chops  and  the  rice  bran  were  soaked 
twenty-four  hours  before  feeding.  Part  of  the  time 
the  peanuts  were  fed  on  the  vines  and  the  remainder 
they  were  removed  from  the  vines  before  feeding.  The 
rations  fed  and  the  results  for  each  period  are  shown 
separately  in  Table  CL. 

TABLE  CL.  —  RICE  BRAN  VERSUS  PEANUTS  VERSUS  CORN 
FOR  FATTENING  PIGS 


RATIONS,  PROPORTION 
BY  WEIGHT 

NUMBER 
OF  PIGS 

LENGTH 

OF 

PERIOD 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN  PER 
PIG 

FEED 
EATEN  FOR 
EACH  100 
LB.  GAIN 

days 

Ib. 

Ib 

Ib. 

I.    Corn  chops  l 

6 

91 

41.6 

.21 

966 

II.    Rice  bran 

6 

91 

41.6 

.73 

384 

III.    Whole  peanuts 

6 

91 

43.3 

.67 

296 

4  Corn  chops 

I.   4  Rice  bran 

1  Tankage 

G 

39 

63.6 

1.06 

236 

II.    4  Corn  chops 

4  Rice  bran 

6 

39 

118.3 

1.24 

270 

III.    1.9  Corn  chops 

1  Peanuts 

6 

39 

105.0 

1.58 

188 

In  the  first  period  the  rate  of  gain  was  not  satisfactory 
in  any  of  the  lots,  particularly  when  corn  chops  were  fed. 
The  pigs  on  corn  during  this  period  ate  the  least  feed 
and  made  the  smallest  gains  of  any.  The  feed  required 
to  produce  100  pounds  of  gain  was  also  abnormally  high 
on  this  ration.  The  marked  improvement  in  the  rate 
of  gain  shown  here  by  all  lots  in  the  second  period  is 
evidence  of  the  improved  palatability  and  value  of  a 

1  Corn  chops  =  coarsely  ground  corn. 


Corn  Substitutes  for  Growing  Pigs  315 

ration  containing  a  variety  of  feeds  and  properly  balanced. 
This  applies  especially  to  the  rations  fed  to  lots  I  and 
II.  The  total  feed  required  to  produce  100  pounds  of 
gain  during  the  second  period  was  abnormally  small. 
Ordinarily  the  feeder  cannot  expect  such  economical 
gains. 

The  experts  who  examined  the  carcasses  of  the  different 
lots  pronounced  the  meat  produced  on  the  corn  ration 
very  good,  firm  and  solid.  The  carcasses  from  lot  II, 
fed  rice  bran  chiefly,  were  said  to  be  very  poor,  soft,  and 
thin.  The  meat  produced  by  lot  III,  those  fed  largely 
on  peanuts,  was  described  as  follows :  "  very  poor,  very 
soft  and  what  we  term  oily ;  the  meat  was  very  soft  and 
flabby." 

The  most  obvious  conclusions  to  be  drawn  from  these 
results  are  :  first,  that  an  exclusive  corn  or  rice  bran  ration 
is  not  economical ;  second,  that  rice  bran  is  at  least  equal 
to  corn  in  feeding  value ;  and  third,  that  so  large  a  pro- 
portion of  peanuts  in  the  ration  will  seriously  affect  the 
quality  and  selling  value  of  the  meat. 

COWPEAS   AND   SOYBEANS 

The  seeds  of  cowpea  and  soybean  are  rich  in  protein 
and  are  valuable,  therefore,  for  balancing  carbonaceous 
feeds  like  corn.  Soybean  seed  usually  contains  more 
than  30  per  cent  protein,  and  cowpeas  about  24  per  cent. 

Cowpeas  versus  corn. 

In  Table  CLI  are  the  results  of  pig-feeding  experiments 
conducted  at  the  Alabama  Experiment  Station  in  which 
the  value  of  cowpeas  as  a  whole  and  a  partial  substitute 
for  corn  was  determined.  The  rations  fed  and  the  results 


316 


Pork  Production 


are  presented  separately  for  each  experiment.    In  all 
cases  the  corn  and  cowpeas  were  fed  ground. 

TABLE   CLI.  —  GROUND    COWPEAS   VERSUS   CORN-MEAL   FOR 
FATTENING  PIGS 


TOTAL 

RATIONS,  PROPOR- 

NUM- 

LENGTH 
OF  EX- 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 

FEED 
EATEN 

STATION  AND 

TIONS  BY  WEIGHT 

PERI- 

GAIN PER 

FOR  EACH 

AUTHOR 

MENTS 

PlQ 

100  LB. 

GAIN 

days 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Corn 

4 

.74 

478 

Ala.  Bull.  143, 

J  corn         ) 
^  cowpeas  J 

4 

.93 

395 

Gray,  Duggar,  and 
Ridgway 

Corn 

3 

119 

.46 

487 

Cowpeas 

3 

119 

.59 

481 

Ala.  Bull.  83 

i  corn          1 

3 

119 

.62 

433 

Duggar 

\  cowpeas  J 

Corn 

3 

70 

.32 

806 

Ala.  Bull.  93 

\  corn         1 
\  cowpeas  j 

3 

70 

.51 

528 

Duggar 

f  sweet  potatoes  j 
\  cowpeas            j 

3 

56 

.39 

1334 

Ala.  Bull.  93 

\  corn          { 

3 

56 

.77 

400 

Duggar 

2  cowpeas  J 

In  every  instance  the  combination  of  corn  and  cowpeas 
gave  better  results  than  corn  alone.  The  rate  of  gain 
on  the  corn  rations  averaged  .506  pound  daily,  and  on 
the  ration  of  one-half  cowpeas  .686  pound  daily,  an  in- 
crease of  more  than  35  per  cent.  Cowpeas  alone  did  not 
give  satisfactory  results.  While  corn  is  excessively  car- 
bonaceous for  growing  and  fattening  pigs,  cowpeas  are 
unnecessarily  rich  in  protein  when  fed  alone.  From  the 
nature  of  their  composition,  a  combination  of  both  would 
be  expected  to  give  better  results  than  either  alone. 
Where  cowpeas  are  not  grown  extensively,  a  ration  of 
4  to  5  parts  of  corn  to  1  of  cowpeas  would  probably  give 


Corn  Substitutes  for  Growing  Pigs 


317 


more  economical  results  than  when  a  larger  proportion 
of  peas  is  fed. 

Corn  alone  versus  corn  and  soybeans. 

In  Table  CXIV,  page  269,  soybeans  are  shown  to  have 
practically  the  same  value  as  linseed-oil  meal  in  corn 
rations  for  fattening  pigs.  For  further  information,  ex- 
periments comparing  corn  alone  and  corn  and  soybean 
meal  are  summarized  in  Table  CLII. 


TABLE  CLII.  —  CORN  ALONE  VERSUS  CORN  AND  SOYBEAN 
MEAL1   (Av.  3  Exps.) 


RATIONS,  PROPOR- 
TIONS BY  WEIGHT 

TOTAL 
NUMBER 
OF  PIGS 

AVERAGE 
LENGTH  OF 
EXPERI- 
MENT 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

FEED  EATEN  FOR 
EACH  100  LB. 
GAIN 

Corn-meal  .  . 

26 

days 

56 

Ib. 

124 

Ib. 

.95 

Ib. 
594.    corn 

3  57  corn-meal 
1  soybean  meal 

26 

56 

125 

130 

345.4  corn 
96.5  soybeans 

Fed  against  corn  alone,  the  corn  and  soybean  ration 
increased  the  rate  of  gain  by  more  than  J  pound  daily 
for  each  pig  and  reduced  by  152  pounds  the  total  amount 
of  feed  required  to  produce  100  pounds  of  gain.  As  fed 
in  these  experiments,  100  pounds  of  soybean  meal  with 
corn  has  the  value  of  257  pounds  of  corn  when  fed  alone. 


COTTONSEED   MEAL 


Cottonseed  meal  should  be  regarded  by  all  swine-men 
as  a  highly  dangerous  feed.    If  given  in  limited  amounts 

1  Skinner,  Ind.  Exp.    Sta.  Bull.    108 ;    Wheeler,  Kans.  Exp. 
Sta,  Bull.  192 ;   Good,  Ky.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  175. 


318  Pork  Production 

as  a  supplement  to  corn  or  other  carbonaceous  feeds,  and 
for  a  limited  period,  usually  not  to  exceed  thirty  or  forty 
days,  excellent  results  may  be  secured  from  its  use.  Din- 
widdie 1  expresses  the  conviction,  with  much  experi- 
mental evidence  to  support  it,  that  cottonseed  meal  can 
be  fed  indefinitely  provided  the  amount  does  not  exceed 
^  pound  daily  for  a  pig  weighing  50  to  75  pounds,  or 
^  pound  daily  for  one  weighing  75  to  100  pounds,  or 
^  pound  daily  for  an  animal  weighing  100  to  150  pounds. 
Numerous  experiments 2  have  shown  satisfactory  and 
profitable  results  from  the  limited  use  of  cottonseed  meal 
for  a  short  fattening  period.  On  the  other  hand,  other 
investigators  after  successive  and  continuous  efforts  to 
discover  a  practical  and  safe  method  of  feeding  it  have 
announced  with  emphasis  their  conviction  that  cotton- 
seed or  cottonseed  meal  could  not  be  fed  in  any  form, 
for  even  a  limited  period,  without  running  a  serious  risk 
of  loss. 

The  following  condensed  statement  by  Henry  and 
Morrison 3  may  be  accepted  at  this  time  as  a  reliable 
summing-up  of  the  numerous  and  extensive  studies  which 
have  been  made  of  this  feed  by  the  experiment  stations 
of  the  country : 

"As  now  prepared,  cottonseed  meal  is  poisonous  to 
swine.  All  the  various  proposed  ways  for  safely  feeding 
this  meal  have  failed  under  careful  and  continued  tests. 
Pigs  thrive  at  first  on  the  meal,  but  usually  in  from  4  to 
6  weeks  some  die  —  not  all,  as  a  rule,  but  so  many  that 
all  possible  profits  from  the  use  of  this  feed  are  lost.  A 
few  feeders  continue  to  use  the  meal,  experience  enabling 

1  Ark.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  85. 

2  Rommel,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bur.  An.  Ind.,  Bull.  47. 

3  "Feeds  and  Feeding,"  1915. 


Corn  Substitutes  for  Growing  Pigs  319 

them  to  avoid  most  of  the  losses.  If  cottonseed  meal  is 
not  fed  continuously  for  over  40  days  and  does  not  form 
over  one-fourth  of  the  ration,  and  if  pigs  are  freely  supplied 
with  green  forage  or  grazed  on  pasture,  the  risk  from  this 
feed  is  slight.  It  is  considered  safe  to  have  pigs  follow 
steers  which  are  being  fed  cottonseed  meal,  for  the  meal 
does  not  seem  to  be  poisonous  after  passing  through  the 
cattle.  Care  should  always  be  taken  that  the  steers  do 
not  throw  so  much  meal  out  of  the  feed  boxes  that  the 
pigs  may  be  poisoned  by  eating  such  waste  meal." 


Although  a  considerable  number  of  pigs  are  commer- 
cially fattened  every  year  on  distillery  slops  as  they 
come  direct  from  the  factory,  the  dried  products  are  gen- 
erally to  be  regarded  as  not  well  adapted  to  swine.  Dried 
distillers'  and  brewers'  grains  are  high  in  their  content 
of  fiber,  which  is  the  principal  reason  why  they  are  not 
suitable  when  fed  in  any  quantity  to  growing  and  fatten- 
ing pigs.  In  addition,  they  are  not  very  palatable.  How- 
ever, they  are  nitrogenous,  carrying  as  much  as  23  to 
27  per  cent  protein,  and  when  fed  in  small  proportions 
with  corn,  better  results  are  usually  obtained  than  from 
corn  alone.1 

MOLASSES 

To  determine  the  possibility  of  partially  substituting 
cane,  or  black-strap  molasses  for  corn,  Burns  2  conducted 
at  the  Texas  Station  a  dry  lot  feeding  experiment  with 
three  groups  of  pigs.  This  test  was  prompted  by  the 
increasing  price  of  corn  and  the  similarity  in  chemical 

i  Ky.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bull.  190.  2  Bull.  131. 


320 


Pork  Production 


composition  of  corn  and  molasses.    The  rations  fed  each 
lot  and  the  results  are  reported  in  Table  CLIII. 

TABLE  CLIII.  —  BLACK-STRAP  MOLASSES  AS  A  SUBSTITUTE  FOR 

CORN 


RATIONS,  PROPOR- 
TIONS BY  WEIGHT 

NUMBER 
OF  PIGS 

LENGTH 
OF  EX- 
PERI- 
MENTS 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

FEED  EATEN 
FOR  EACH 
100  LB.  GAIN 

1  corn  chops 
1  molasses 

8 

days 

91 

a. 

127 

Ib. 

.90 

Z6. 
487  corn 
466  molasses 

3  corn  chops 
1  molasses 

8 

91 

121 

1.45 

449  corn 
145  molasses 

Corn  chops 

8 

91 

114 

1.66 

522  corn 

The  results  showed  the  ration  of  corn  alone  superior 
to  either  ration  containing  the  molasses.  The  ration  in 
which  the  smaller  proportion  of  molasses  was  fed  pro- 
duced faster  and  cheaper  gains  than  the  one  containing 
the  larger  proportion.  Since  molasses  is  a  carbonaceous 
feed  like  corn,  all  the  rations  lacked  balance,  or  protein. 
Burns  expressed  his  belief  that  molasses  feeding  would  be 
attended  with  better  results  when  a  protein  supplement 
like  skim-milk  or  tankage  is  fed  along  with  a  combina- 
tion of  corn  and  molasses. 

The  results  of  an  experiment  by  Clark  1  at  the  Utah 
Experiment  Station  would  indicate  that  beet  molasses 
may  be  fed  with  profit  to  fattening  well-grown  shotes. 
In  this  experiment  rations  containing  sugar-beets,  wet 
beet  pulp,  and  molasses  were  fed  with  wheat  shorts. 
The  daily  rations  and  the  results  are  shown  in  Table 
CLIV. 

1  Bull.  101. 


Corn  Substitutes  for  Growing  Pigs 


321 


TABLE  CLIV.  —  SUGAR-BEET  MOLASSES  FOR  FATTENING 
WELL-GROWN  SHOTES 


AVERAGE 

AVERAGE 

AVERAGE  DAILY  RATION 

OF  Ex- 

INITIAL 
WEIGHT 

DAILY 
GAIN 

FOOD  EATEN  FOR  EACH 
100  LB.  GAIN 

PER  PIG 

PER  PIG 

days 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

7.6#  shorts  .     .     . 

48 

130 

1.7 

444  shorts 

3.2#  shorts  .     .     . 

268  shorts 

8.3#  sugar-beets  . 

48 

130 

1.2 

697  sugar-beets 

3.3#  shorts  .     .     . 

275  shorts 

12.3#  wet  beet  pulp 

48 

130 

1.2 

1030  wet  beet  pulp 

3#  shorts  .     .     . 

186  shorts 

9.4#  wet  beet  pulp 

600  wet  beet  pulp 

4.4$  beet  molasses 

48 

130 

1.6 

281  molasses 

The  pigs  given  the  beet  molasses  ration  gained  22  per 
cent  faster  than  those  fed  the  same  ration  without  the 
molasses,  and  almost  as  fast  as  those  fed  shorts  alone. 
For  producing  a  unit  of  gain,  approximately  127  pounds  of 
beet  molasses  had  the  value  of  100  pounds  of  shorts.  In 
the  ration  containing  the  sugar-beets,  396  pounds  of  beets 
proved  equivalent  to  100  pounds  of  shorts,  while  609 
pounds  of  the  wet  beet  pulp  was  equal  to  100  pounds  of 
shorts. 

Beet  molasses  as  fed  by  Clinton  l  at  the  Cornell  Station 
was  not  very  palatable  and  had  a  tendency  to  cause 
scours. 

KOOTS :    TUBERS 

As  a  class,  roots  and  tubers  contain  from  70  to  more 
than  90  per  cent  of  water.  Because  of  this  they  are  too 
bulky  for  fattening  pigs  except  when  fed  in  relatively 

i  Bull.  199. 


322 


Pork  Production 


small  amounts  and  as  adjuncts  to  a  meal  or  grain  ration. 
As  a  class,  also,  they  are  carbonaceous  in  nature.  Most 
of  those  generally  used  for  pig-feeding  contain  smaller 
proportions  of  protein  than  corn.  The  succulent  quality 
of  roots  insures  a  laxative  effect  for  the  rations  in  which 
they  are  fed.  This  is  the  chief  reason  for  their  beneficial 
results  when  fed  to  breeding  stock  during  seasons  when 
pasture  is  not  available. 

TABLE  CLV.  —  VALUE   OF  ROOTS   FOR   FATTENING   PIGS  l 
(Av.  8  Exps.) 


AVERAGE  DAILY 
RATION 

TOTAL 
NUM- 
BER 
PIGS 

AVERAGE 
LENGTH 

OF 

EXPERI- 
MENTS 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

FEED  EATEN  FOR 
EACH  100  LB.  GAIN 

5.4#  concentrates 

38 

days 
88 

tb. 

90 

Z6. 

1.2 

499  concentrates 

3.6#  concentrates 
5.6#  roots  .     .     . 

38 

88 

87 

1.0 

358  concentrates 
631  roots 

Experimental  studies  to  determine  the  value  of  the 
different  roots  for  fattening  pigs  are  more  or  less  frag- 
mentary in  extent,  many  of  them  being  inconclusive  so  far 
as  showing  any  considerable  merit  for  these  feeds.  As  a 
general  proposition,  it  may  be  said  that  the  addition  of 
roots  to  a  meal  or  grain  ration  does  not  hasten  the  rate  of 
gain,  but  does  result  in  a  saving  in  the  amount  of  meal 
or  grain  required  to  produce  a  unit  of  gain.  This  is 
shown  by  a  compilation  of  experimental  data  by  Henry 
and  Morrison 2  shown  in  Table  CLV.  These  figures 

1  Clark,  Utah    Exp.   Sta.   BuU.    101;     Lazenby,    Ohio  Rpt., 
1884 ;     Plumb  and  Van  Norman,  Ind.  Exp.  Sta.  Bulls.  79  and 
82 ;   Robertson,  Ottawa  Exp.  Farms,  Rpt.  1891 ;  Sanborn,  Utah 
Rpt.,  1891 ;    Shaw,  Mont.  Exp.  Sta.  BuU.  27. 

2  "  Feeds  and  Feeding,"  1915. 


Corn  Substitutes  for  Growing  Pigs  323 

represent  the  average  results  of  eight  experiments  in 
which  rations  of  concentrates  alone  were  compared  with 
the  same  rations  with  roots  added. 

On  the  average,  the  631  pounds  of  roots  fed  for  each 
100  pounds  of  gain  saved  141  pounds  of  concentrates. 
This  would  give  447  pounds  of  roots  the  value  of  100 
pounds  of  concentrates.  The  roots  fed  did  not  contain 
an  average  of  more  than  15  per  cent  of  dry  matter,  while 
the  concentrates  had  about  90  per  cent.  In  these  experi- 
ments, then,  100  pounds  of  dry  matter  in  roots  had  the 
value,  approximately,  of  134  pounds  of  dry  matter  in  the 
form  of  concentrates. 

Sweet  potatoes. 

In  the  South,  sweet  potatoes  furnish  a  heavy  yield  of 
fairly  palatable  feed  suitable  for  finishing  pigs  for  market. 
The  general  practice  is  to  allow  the  pigs  to  forage  them 
during  the  fall  and  early  winter.  In  order  to  secure 
satisfactory  results,  the  pigs  should  receive  in  addition 
a  fair  allowance  of  grain.  Since  sweet  potatoes  contain 
extremely  meager  quantities  of  protein,  best  results 
are  secured  when  the  tubers  are  properly  supplemented 
by  the  addition  of  a  nitrogenous  supplement. 

Earle  and  Orr  x  of  the  Alabama  Station  conducted  a 
short  experiment  in  which  the  sweet  potatoes  were  har- 
vested by  hand  and  fed  to  pigs  confined  to  the  dry  lot. 
One  group  of  pigs  was  fed  corn  and  the  other  sweet 
potatoes  with  the  results  shown  in  Table  CLVI. 

The  sweet  potatoes,  hand-fed,  did  not  give  satisfac- 
tory results  in  this  test,  but  the  number  of  pigs  in  each 
lot  was  such  that  the  results  cannot  be  considered  con- 
clusive. The  authors  of  the  experiment  concluded  that 

i  Bull.  93. 


324 


Pork  Production 


sweet  potatoes  could  not  be  profitably  grown,   stored, 
and  fed  to  pigs  by  hand. 

TABLE  CLVI.  —  SWEET  POTATOES,  HAND-FED,  VERSUS   CORN 


RATIONS,  PROPORTIONS 
BY  WEIGHT 

NUMBER 
OF  PIGS 

LENGTH 
op  EX- 
PERIMENT 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

FEED 
EATEN  FOR 
EACH  100 
LB.  GAIN 

DRY 
MATTER 
EATEN  FOR 
EACH  100 
LB.  GAIN 

f  sweet  potatoes  . 
i  ground  cowpeas 

3 

days 

56 

Z&. 
.391 

Ib. 

1334 

». 

600 

£  corn-meal      .     . 
|  ground  cowpeas 

3 

56 

.775 

400 

360 

That  sweet  potatoes  will  give  fairly  good  results  when 
the  pigs  are  allowed  to  do  the  harvesting  is  indicated  by 
an  experiment  by  Newsman  and  Pickett 1  at  the  South 
Carolina  Experiment  Station.  In  this  trial,  pigs  averag- 
ing 162  pounds  at  the  beginning  made  an  average  daily 
gain  of  .86  pound  on  sweet  potatoes  alone,  the  experi- 
ment covering  thirty-three  days.  In  the  same  trial,  a 
similar  group  of  three  pigs  fed  corn  alone  gained  1.39 
pounds  daily.  The  amount  of  feed  required  to  produce 
100  pounds  of  gain  was  3245  pounds  of  sweet  potatoes 
and  602  of  corn  respectively.  The  authors  estimated  the 
yield  of  sweet  potatoes  and  concluded  that  one  acre  could 
be  credited  with  369  pounds  of  pork.  At  the  Alabama 
Experiment  Station,  Duggar 2  fed  two  shotes  grazing 
sweet  potatoes  a  grain  ration  of  2  parts  corn  and  1  part 
ground  cowpeas.  In  the  thirty-three  days  of  the  trial, 
the  pigs  made  100  pounds  of  gain  from  313  pounds  of 
the  grain  mixture,  which  indicated  only  fair  returns 
from  the  sweet  potatoes  eaten  in  addition. 

i  Bull.  122.  2  Ibid.,  122. 


Corn  Substitutes  for  Growing  Pigs 


325 


Potatoes. 

When  potatoes  are  extremely  cheap,  they  may  be  fed 
profitably  to  fattening  pigs  if  cooked  and  properly  supple- 
mented. Potatoes  are  one  of  the  feeds  which  require 
cooking.  Raw  potatoes  are  not  eaten  with  relish  and 
fail  to  maintain  pigs  when  given  alone.1  The  necessity 
of  feeding  some  nitrogenous  supplement  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  potatoes  contain  a  smaller  proportion  of  pro- 
tein than  corn. 

The  value  of  cooked  potatoes  for  finishing  well-grown 
shotes  in  the  dry  lot  is  indicated  by  the  results  of  two 
experiments  conducted  at  the  Wisconsin  Experiment 
Station  by  Henry.2  In  each  trial  corn-meal  alone  was 
fed  to  one  group  of  pigs,  and  a  mixture  of  1  part  c<5rn- 
meal  and  3  parts  cooked  potatoes  to  a  second  similar  group. 
A  minimum  of  water  was  used  in  cooking  the  potatoes  so 
that  none  of  the  liquid  was  lost.  The  weight  of  the 
cooked  potatoes  with  liquid  just  equaled  that  of  the  raw 
potatoes.  The  averaged  results  of  these  two  experi- 
ments are  shown  in  Table  CLVII. 

TABLE  CLVII.  —  COOKED  POTATOES  FOB  FATTENING  PIGS 
(Av.  2  Exps.) 


RATIONS,  PROPORTIONS 
BY  WEIGHT 

TOTAL 

NUM- 
BER OF 
PIGS 

AVERAGE 
LENGTH 

OF 

EXPERI- 
MENTS 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 

PER  PlQ 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

FEED  EATEN 
FOR  EACH  100 
LB.  GAIN 

days 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Corn-meal   . 

5 

42 

229 

1.668 

439  corn 

1  corn-meal      .     . 

262  corn 

3  cooked  potatoes 

5 

42 

232 

1.499 

788  potatoes 

1  Grisdale,  Ottawa  Exp.  Farms,  Bull.  57. 

2  Wis.  Exp.  Sta.,  An.  Rpt.,  1890. 


326  Pork  Production 

The  pigs  were  well  grown  and  made  unusually  rapid 
gains  considering  that  neither  ration  contained  a  protein 
supplement.  In  these  experiments,  788  pounds  of  cooked 
potatoes  had  the  effect  of  saving  an  average  of  177  pounds 
of  corn-meal,  although  reducing  slightly  the  rate  of  gain. 
This  would  indicate  that  445  pounds  of  cooked  potatoes 
were  equivalent  in  value  to  100  pounds  of  corn-meal. 
The  summarized  results  of  all  experiments  made  at 
Copenhagen  (Denmark)  Station  by  Fjord,  and  reported 
by  Henry  and  Morrison,1  gave  400  pounds  of  cooked  pota- 
toes the  value  of  100  pounds  of  mixed  grain.  Grisdale2 
reports  a  fair  quality  of  bacon  produced  from  a  ration  of 
100  pounds  of  cooked  potatoes  with  20  pounds  of  meal. 

Other  roots. 

Sugar-beets  and  mangels  are  considered  the  best  roots 
for  swine-feeding  in  Canada  and  the  western  states. 
Grisdale 2  concludes  that  carrots  are  not  as  palatable 
nor  as  good  keepers  as  mangels  or  suger-beets.  Sugar- 
beets  are  more  palatable  than  mangels,  although  the 
latter  are  especially  recommended  for  brood  sows.  A 
good  quality  of  bacon  is  produced  on  rations  containing 
roots.  Clark3  at  the  Montana  Experiment  Station 
found  that  pigs  refused  to  eat  turnips  and  rutabagas 
when  fed  raw.  French 4  of  the  Oregon  station  found  that 
162-pound  pigs  failed  to  gain  when  grazed  on  artichokes 
and  given  no  other  feed.  When  the  pigs  were  given  a 
ration  of  ground  wheat  and  oats,  however,  they  made 
an  average  daily  gain  of  .81  pound  with  an  expenditure 
of  310  pounds  of  grain  for  each  100  pounds  of  gain  made. 

1  "Feeds  and  Feeding,"  1915. 

2  Ottawa  Exp.  Farms,  Bull.  51. 

'  Bull.  27.  4  Ibid.,  54. 


Corn  Substitutes  for  Growing  Pigs  327 

CONDIMENTAL  STOCK  FOODS 

Condimental  stock  foods  or  feeds,  sometimes  called 
proprietary  stock  foods,  are  usually  mixtures  made  up  of 
one  or  more  common  feed  stuffs  like  wheat  bran,  wheat 
middlings,  linseed-oil  meal,  dried  blood,  cottonseed  meal, 
with  a  base,  filler,  or  diluent  of  grain  screenings,  ground 
oat  hulls,  corncob  meal,  peat  or  peanut  hulls,  to  which 
have  been  added  certain  condiments,  herbs,  and  drugs, 
such  as  common  salt,  Epsom  salts,  Glauber's  salts,  gentian, 
charcoal,  ginger,  fenugreek,  anise,  saltpeter,  copperas, 
as  "tonics,"  "regulators,"  "appetizers,"  "conditioners," 
and  so  on.1 

Experimental  feeding  trials. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  manufacturers  of  these 
products  make  large  claims  concerning  their  value  when 
fed  in  rather  minute  quantities  with  the  regular  rations, 
and  due  to  the  fact,  also,  that  their  cost  is  high  and  their 
use  quite  common,  a  detailed  study  was  made  of  all 
American  and  Canadian  pig-feeding  experiments  in  which 
various  brands  of  stock-foods  had  been  fed.  In  all,  eight 
experiments  have  been  made  which  involved  the  use  of  a 
total  of  261  pigs  averaging  approximately  110  pounds 
when  the  trials  began.  The  experiments  were  conducted 
under  dry-lot  conditions,  excepting  those  made  at  the 
South  Dakota  Station.  In  two  of  these  trials  the  pigs 
had  access  to  limited  areas  of  rape,  and  in  one,  both 
groups  of  pigs  were  on  blue-grass.  The  length  of  the 
average  feeding  period  was  77  days.  The  stock  foods  were 
purchased  on  the  open  market  and  fed  in  each  case 
according  to  the  manufacturer's  directions.  In  Table 

1  Jones  and  Proulx,  Ind.  Exp.  Sta.  Bulls.  177  and  216. 


328 


Pork  Production 


CLVIII  comparable  results  have  been  brought  together 
so  that  the  evidence  furnished  by  these  experiments 
would  be  more  clear  for  practical  interpretation. 

TABLE  CLVIII.  —  SUMMARY  :   VALUE  OF  CONDIMENTAL  STOCK 
FOODS  FOR  FATTENING  PIGS 


RATIONS 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 

PEB  PlQ 

TOTAL,  FEED 
EATEN  FOR 
EACH  100  LB. 
GAIN 

COST  OP 
EACH  100 
LB.  GAIN 

NUMBER  OF  EX- 
PERIMENTS 

Grain  alone  . 

Ib. 

1.152 

Ib. 

547 

$5.07 

Average 
6  experiments 

Grain  alone  + 
Stock  food    .     . 

1.233 

522 

5.34 

Balanced  ration 
Balanced  ration 
+  Stock  food     . 

1.315 
1.243 

404 
409 

3.49 
4.47 

Average 
2  experiments 

Balanced  ration 

1.989 

412 

4.70 

Average 
2  experiments 

Grain  alone  -f- 
Stock  food    .     . 

1.496 

550 

5.74 

The  averaged  results  from  the  six  experiments  in 
which  corn  alone  was  compared  to  corn  with  a  stock- 
food  added,  showed  that  the  latter  increased  the  rate 
of  gain  7.03  per  cent  and  reduced  the  total  amount  of 
feed  (including  the  stock-food)  required  for  a  given  gain 
by  4.57  per  cent.  The  actual  money  cost  of  producing 
100  pounds  of  gain,  however,  was  27  cents  less  for  those 
fed  the  ration  of  corn  alone. 

In  two  of  the  experiments,  a  balanced  ration  was  com- 
pared with  the  same  ration  with  a  stock-food  added.  In 
this  case  the  balanced  ration  without  the  stock-food  pro- 
duced 5.79  per  cent  faster  gains,  required  1.22  per  cent 
less  feed  for  a  unit  of  gain,  and  produced  100  pounds  of 
increase  at  a  saving  of  98  cents. 


Corn  Substitutes  for  Growing  Pigs  329 

When  a  well-balanced  ration  was  compared  with  one 
of  corn  alone  with  stock-food  added,  the  balanced  ration 
produced  32.95  per  cent  faster  gains,  required  25.09  per 
cent  less  feed  to  produce  the  same  gain,  and  made  a  money 
charge  of  $1.04  less  for  producing  100  pounds  of  gain 
than  the  ration  of  corn  and  stock-food. 

It  would  appear,  then,  from  these  results  that  the 
addition  of  a  stock-food  to  an  unbalanced  ration  like 
corn  alone  for  fattening  pigs  is  hardly  justified,  even 
under  assumed  conditions  in  which  no  protein  feeds  are 
available.  Although  increasing  perceptibly  the  rate  of 
gain,  the  actual  money  cost  of  a  unit  of  gain  was  increased 
27  cents  for  every  100  pounds.  The  answer  given  by 
these  results  to  the  question  whether  it  pays  to  feed  a 
stock-food  if  the  pigs  are  already  receiving  a  balanced 
ration  is  clearly  in  the  negative.  The  mere  addition 
of  a  stock-food  to  such  a  ration  seems  to  have  the  effect 
of  reducing  the  rate  of  gain  and  increasing  the  cost.  And 
finally,  when  a  ration  of  corn  and  stock-food,  which  is 
altogether  too  common,  is  compared  with  a  balanced 
ration  of  corn  and  a  standard  protein  feed,  the  results 
are  in  wide  contrast.  They  pointedly  suggest  that  the 
money  spent  for  stock-foods  would  be  better  used  if 
invested  in  some  good  nitrogenous  feeol  of  proven  worth. 
So  far  as  the  evidence  of  actual  experimental  feeding 
tests  is  concerned,  therefore,  there  seems  to  be  no  ground 
on  which  the  use  of  condimental  stock-foods  for  fatten- 
ing pigs  can  be  justified  in  practice. 

Medicinal  properties. 

Of  the  101  drugs  discovered  in  stock-foods  and  studied 
by  Beal  and  Rose,1  68.7  per  cent  were  found  to  have  dis- 

1  Purdue  Univ.  thesis,  1914. 


330  Pork  Production 

tinct  medicinal  properties.  The  other  31.3  per  cent  did 
not  possess  these  properties  worthy  of  mention.  Of  the 
former  class,  41  had  a  tonic  action,  stimulating  digestion 
and  body  vigor ;  20  had  diuretic  properties,  i.e.,  stimulated 
the  action  of  the  kidneys;  18  were  laxatives,  promoting 
bowel  action;  10  were  vermifuges  or  worm  expellants; 
and  8  were  astringents. 

Street l  of  the  New  Jersey  Station  made  a  compre- 
hensive microscopical  and  chemical  analysis  of  fifty 
different  brands  of  condimental  feeds  and  condition 
powders  sold  in  New  Jersey  in  1904.  From  this  study, 
and  a  review  of  the  results  of  feeding  experiments,  he 
came  to  the  following  conclusions : 

1.  "A  loss  of  appetite,  or  a  run-down  condition,  in- 
duced by  over-work  or  insufficient  feed,  may  often  be 
remedied  by  the  use  of  a  stimulating  or  tonic  food,  the 
ingredients  for  making  which  the  feeder  should  always 
keep  at  hand.    In  the  majority  of  cases  simply  a  change 
of  food  will  bring  about  the  desired  effect,  but  when  this 
is  ineffective  a  liberal  use  of  common  salt  in  the  ration 
will  generally  prove  beneficial. 

2.  "The  claims  of  the  manufacturers  of  condimental 
feeds,  when  not  preposterous,  are  exaggerated  and  mislead- 
ing.   No  one  feed,  however  skillfully  compounded,  can 
serve  as  a  remedy  for  all  ailments  of  all  classes  of  live-stock. 

3.  "Instead  of  being  prepared  according  to  scientific 
formulas,  as  claimed,  many  of  the  condimental  feeds  are 
heterogeneous  mixtures,  with  little  regard  to  the  require- 
ments of  the  animal,  and  in  certain  cases  the  drugs  used 
have  a  counteracting  effect  on  each  other. 

4.  "Even  where  effective  drugs  have  been  used,  the 
amount  of  the  mixture  to  be  given  to  the  animal,  accord- 

i  Bull.  184. 


Corn  Substitutes  for  Growing  Pigs  331 

ing  to  the  instructions  of  the  maunf acturers,  is  generally  so 
small  that  no  possible  benefit  can  be  expected  from  its  use. 
5.  "  Assuming  that  the  condimental  feeds  are  scientifi- 
cally prepared  mixtures  of  useful  and  effective  ingredients, 
and  their  use  as  directed  would  confer  upon  the  animal 
the  benefits  claimed,  their  excessive  cost  would  pro- 
hibit their  use  by  the  careful  and  economical  feeder. 
Such  ingredients,  which  they  contain  and  which  might 
be  of  benefit,  any  feeder  can  obtain  and  mix  for  at  from 
one-tenth  to  one-twentieth  the  cost  of  the  prepared  foods. 
He  would  have  the  added  advantage  of  knowing  just 
what  drugs  he  was  administering  to  his  animals  and  could 
give  them  such  quantities  of  the  needed  medicines  as 
veterinary  experience  has  shown  to  be  necessary." 

Effect  on  digestion. 

Stock  foods  do  not  improve  the  digestibility  of  the 
rations  in  which  they  are  used,  according  to  the  results 
obtained  in  actual  digestion  trials  by  Michael  and  Ken- 
nedy at  the  Iowa  Station.1  In  this  experiment  four  groups 
of  pigs  were  fed.  Corn  alone  was  given  to  one  lot,  and 
corn  and  a  stock-food  to  each  of  the  other  three  lots.  The 
effect  of  the  stock-foods  on  the  digestibility  of  the  organic 
matter  is  shown  in  the  following  table : 

TABLE   CLIX.  —  THE  EFFECT  OF  STOCK-FOODS   ON   THE   DI- 
GESTIBILITY OF  CORN 


RATION  FED 

PER  CENT  OP  ORGANIC 
MATTER  DIGESTED 

89.84 

^Corn-f  Standard  stock-food    .... 
Corn  -f~  Iowa  stock-food                 ... 

89.74 
89.60 

Corn  -j-  International  stock-food  .     .     . 

89.25 

.  113. 


332  Pork  Production 

Conclusions. 

Growing  and  fattening  pigs  do  not  do  well  when  re- 
stricted to  a  diet  of  straight  corn,  especially  when  con- 
fined to  insanitary  dry  lots.  Young  pigs  particularly 
lose  condition,  fail  in  appetite,  and  take  on  a  more  or 
less  haggard  and  serious  appearance.  Neither  do  pigs 
do  well  when  full  of  worms.  Such  pigs  as  these  need 
the  tonic  of  a  balanced  ration.  Their  digestive  systems 
should  be  regulated  by  giving  them  access  to  forage  crops 
in  season,  or  by  feeding  a  small  amount  of  some  feed 
possessing  laxative  properties,  like  linseed-oil  meal  or 
wheat  bran.  A  reliable  conditioner  is  obtained  by  a 
sensible  combination  of  good  feed  and  water  and  clean 
quarters.  Worms  can  be  dislodged  more  effectively  by 
the  use  of  standard  veterinary  formulas,  given  in  proper 
sized  doses,  than  by  the  use  of  a  general  corrector.  The 
best  appetizer  is  a  healthy  body,  properly  nourished  on 
complete  and  well-balanced  rations  and  free  from  internal 
or  external  parasites.  Appetite  is  something  which 
comes  from  within,  and  does  not  require  artificial  stimu- 
lation in  a  healthy  animal,  especially  in  a  pig. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

PREPARATION  OF  FEEDS  AND   METHODS  OF 
FEEDING 

THE  idea  underlying  the  practice  of  grinding,  shelling, 
soaking,  or  cooking  feed  for  pigs  is  that  the  special  prep- 
aration will  result  in  improving  its  palatability,  hence 
increasing  consumption  and  hastening  gains,  or  that  it 
will  insure  more  complete  digestion,  thus  resulting  in 
less  waste  of  feed  and  greater  economy  of  gains.  But 
these  special  methods  of  preparation  necessitate  more 
or  less  expense  for  labor,  machinery,  and  equipment. 
Before  any  method  of  preparation  is  justified,  therefore, 
it  must  be  shown  that  the  increased  rate  and  economy 
of  gains  which  may  result  are  sufficient  to  pay  this  extra 
feed  cost. 

CORN 

Grinding  corn. 

Numerous  and  extensive  feeding  experiments  in  which 
ground  corn  has  been  fed  against  ear  and  shelled  corn 
have  been  made  at  the  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  and  Indiana 
Experiment  stations.  The  advisability  of  grinding  will 
be  determined  by  a  study  of  these  results,  the  Wisconsin 
trials  being  considered  first. 

In  Table  CLX  appear  the  average  results  of  ten  years 
of  experimental  work  at  the  Wisconsin  Station  1  as  com- 

i  An.  Rpt.,  Wis.  Exp.  Sta.,  1906. 
333 


334 


Pork  Production 


piled  by  Henry  and  Morrison.1  A  total  of  eighteen 
separate  experiments,  involving  the  use  of  280  pigs,  was 
involved  in  this  study.  The  pigs  averaged  175  pounds 
at  the  beginning  of  the  trials,  which  covered  feeding 
periods  ranging  from  63  to  98  days.  The  experiments 
were  made  during  the  winter  and  in  each  case  old  corn 
only  was  used.  One  lot  of  pigs  was  fed  ground  corn  and 
another  similar  lot  shelled  corn.  In  all  the  experiments 
the  corn  was  supplemented  with  wheat  middlings  in  the 
ratio  of  2  parts  corn  to  1  part  wheat  middlings.  The 
shelled  corn  was  fed  alone  and  dry,  and  the  middlings 
were  mixed  and  fed  wet  with  a  small  quantity  of  water. 


TABLE   CLX.  —  GROUND   CORN  VERSUS    SHELLED    CORN  FOR 
FATTENING  PIGS 

(Av.  18  Exps.) 


RATIONS 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

TOTAL 
GAIN 

ALL  PIGS 

AVERAGE 
TOTAL  FEED 
EATEN  FOR 
EACH  100  LB. 
GAIN 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Shelled 

corn  and  wheat 

middlings 

175 

13,828 

501 

Ground 

corn  and  wheat 

middlings 

175 

15,891 

471 

As  a  rule,  these  experiments  were  with  large  well-grown 
pigs  fed  to  rather  heavy  weight.  The  averaged  results 
show  the  rate  of  gain  to  have  been  increased  practically 
15  per  cent  by  grinding,  and  the  amount  of  feed  required 
to  produce  100  pounds  of  gain  reduced  practically  6  per 
cent.  These  results  were  quite  consistently  shown  in  the 
individual  experiments. 


"  Feeds  and  Feeding,"  p.  574. 


Preparation  of  Feeds 


335 


Soaking  and  grinding  corn. 

Kennedy  and  Robbins  1  of  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station 
conducted  a  total  of  seven  experiments  in  each  of  which 
four  groups  of  pigs  were  fed  on  the  following  rations, 
dry  ear-corn,  soaked  shelled  corn,  dry  corn-meal  (fed  dry), 
and  soaked  corn-meal.  The  experiments  were  run  during 
the  summer  and  fall.  Corn  grown  the  preceding  year 
was  used,  except  in  four  of  the  trials  when  new  corn  was 
fed  in  the  last  part  of  the  trials  for  an  average  period  of 
48  days.  In  four  of  the  experiments  the  pigs  had  access 
to  blue-grass  and  timothy  lots,  while  in  the  other  three 
they  were  confined  to  dry  lots.  In  all  cases  except  one, 
a  small  quantity  of  meat-meal  was  fed  as  a  supplement. 
The  results  are  averaged  in  Table  CLXL 


TABLE  CLXI.  —  GRINDING  VERSUS  OTHER  METHODS  OF  PRE- 
PARING CORN  FOR  FATTENING  PIGS 

(Av.  7  Exps.) 


RATIONS 

TOTAL 
NUMBER 
OF  PIGS 

AVERAGE 
LENGTH 

OF 

EXPERI- 
MENTS 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
TOTAL 
FEED 
EATEN  FOR 
EACH  100 
LB.  GAIN 

Dry  ear  corn   .     .     . 

68 

dayt 

138 

». 
103 

tf>. 

1.271 

Jb. 
445  3 

Soaked  shelled  corn  2 

68 

138 

103 

1.353 

441 

Dry  corn-meal 

. 

68 

138 

103 

;  1.286 

473 

Soaked  corn-meal 

2 

68 

138 

103 

j   1.383   i 

469 

In  these  experiments,  the  unground  corn  gave  better 
results  than  the  shelled  corn  fed  in  the  Wisconsin  trials. 
Although  the  gains  were  not  so  rapid,  less  feed  was  required 

i  Bull.  106.  2  Soaked  12  or  24  hours. 

J  Calculated  on  the  shelled-corn  basis. 


336  Pork  Production 

to  produce  a  unit  of  gain  with  ear-corn  than  with  corn-meal 
either  dry  or  soaked.  A  study  of  the  individual  experi- 
ments shows  this  to  have  been  the  case  particularly  when 
lighter  pigs  were  fed.  In  four  of  the  experiments  in 
which  48-pound  pigs  were  used,  the  gains  were  both 
more  rapid  and  economical  on  ear-corn  than  on  either 
ration  containing  corn-meal.  Considering  both  rate 
and  economy  of  gains,  soaked  shelled  corn  was  the  most 
profitable  ration  fed. 

Based  on  observations  made  during  the  progress  of  the 
experiments  and  the  final  results,  the  authors  made  the 
following  deductions :  Young  pigs  masticate  whole  corn 
more  thoroughly  than  do  older  hogs.  Young  pigs  do  not 
relish  dry  corn-meal  as  do  older  hogs.  Soaking  corn  is 
more  advantageous  for  200-pound  hogs  when  on  pasture 
than  when  in  the  dry  lot.  Shelled  corn  soaked  twelve 
hours  is  better  than  that  soaked  twenty-four  hours. 
Hogs  under  200  pounds  in  weight  made  the  most  economi- 
cal gains  when  their  corn  was  fed  in  the  form  of  dry  ear- 
corn,  although  shelled  corn  soaked  in  water  twelve  hours 
made  slightly  faster  gains.  Hogs  over  200  pounds  in 
weight  made  more  economical  gains  on  shelled  corn  soaked 
in  water  twelve  hours  than  on  dry  ear-corn  or  corn-meal 
in  either  form,  and  the  gains  on  soaked  shelled  corn 
were  nearly  as  rapid  as  on  any  of  the  other  forms  in  which 
corn  was  fed.  The  amount  of  corn  saved  by  shelling 
and  soaking  for  hogs  of  this  weight  varied  from  4.1  per 
cent  to  7.4  per  cent,  being  highest  for  hogs  on  pasture. 

Ear-corn  versus  shelled  corn  versus  ground  corn. 

At  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station,  King  l  conducted 
a  series  of  eight  feeding  experiments  during  1911  and 
1  Proc.  Am.  Society  Animal  Production,  1914. 


Preparation  of  Feeds 


337 


1912  to  determine  the  effect  of  shelling  or  grinding  corn 
as  influenced  by  the  age  or  weight  of  the  pigs  fed.  One 
group  of  pigs  was  fed  dry  ear-corn,  another  dry  shelled 
corn,  and  a  third  corn-meal  wet  by  pouring  on  water  at 
feeding  time.  Each  ration  was  balanced  by  feeding  tank- 
age once  daily  in  the  form  of  a  thin  slop.  In  two  of  the 
experiments  a  small  quantity  of  shorts  was  given  with 
the  tankage.  The  trials  were  conducted  under  dry  lot 
conditions,  the  individual  experiments  being  continued 
until  all  the  pigs  had  attained  approximate  market 
weights.  The  average  initial  weight  of  the  three  lots  of 
pigs  fed  in  the  different  tests  was  as  follows,  —  52#,  56#, 
86#,  102#,  156#,  159#,211#,and  218#,  this  variation  being 
for  the  special  purpose  of  affording  a  means  of  studying  the 
effects  of  weight  on  the  economy  of  the  two  methods  of 
preparation.  The  average  results  of  all  eight  experi- 
ments, shown  in  Table  CLXII,  will  first  be  considered. 

TABLE  CLXII.  —  GROUND  CORN  VERSUS  SHELLED  CORN  VERSUS 
EAR-CORN  FOR  FATTENING  PIGS 

(Av.  8  Exps.) 


RATIONS 

TOTAL 
NUMBER 
OP  PIGS 

AVERAGE 
LENGTH 

OF 

EXPERI- 
MENTS 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
TOTAL  FEED 
EATEN  FOR 
EACH  100 
LB.  GAIN 

days 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Dry  ear-corn  .     .     . 

67 

113 

130 

1.237 

431  ! 

Dry  shelled  corn  .     . 

66 

113 

130 

1.241 

442 

Wet  corn-meal     .     . 

67 

113 

130 

1.364 

416 

The  averaged  results  show  that  less  feed  was  required 
for  a  unit  of  gain  with  ear-corn  than  with  shelled  corn, 

1  Calculated  on  shelled  basis, 
z 


338 


Pork  Production 


the  rate  of  gain  being  practically  the  same.  Grinding 
the  corn  and  feeding  it  wet  had  the  effect  of  increasing 
the  rate  of  gain  10  per  cent  over  ear  or  shelled  corn  and 
of  reducing  by  4.7  per  cent  the  amount  of  feed  required 
for  a  unit  of  gain. 

General  average  results  from  grinding. 

Summarizing  the  results  from  all  the  Iowa  and  Indiana 
experiments  in  which  dry  ear-corn  was  compared  with 
corn-meal  fed  wet  or  after  soaking,  the  results  appear  in 
Table  CLXIII. 

TABLE  CLXIII.  —  SUMMARY  :  EAR-CORN  VERSUS  GROUND 
CORN  FOR  FATTENING  PIGS 

(Av.  15  Exps.) 


RATIONS 

TOTAL 
NUMBER 
op  PIGS 

AVERAGE 
LENGTH 
OF  EX- 
PERIMENTS 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
TOTAL  FEED 
EATEN  FOR 
EACH  100  LB. 
GAIN 

days 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Dry  ear-corn 

135 

125 

117 

1.253 

437 

Wet    or    soaked 

ground  corn    . 

135 

125 

117 

1.372 

441 

These  results  show  that  the  rate  of  gain  was  increased 
9.5  per  cent  by  grinding  and  feeding  the  corn  either  wet 
or  soaked.  The  amount  of  the  ration  required  to  pro- 
duce a  unit  of  gain,  however,  was  9.1  per  cent  less  for 
ear  than  for  ground  corn. 

If  the  average  results  of  the  eighteen  trials  at  the  Wis- 
consin Station,  Table  CLX,  are  included  with  these 
averages,  it  is  found  that  grinding  effected  a  saving  of 
3.09  per  cent  when  compared  with  shelled  corn  or  corn  fed 
on  the  ear.  These  results,  then,  based  on  the  averages 


Preparation  of  Feeds 


339 


of  thirty-three  experiments  in  which  pigs  of  all  ages  and 
degrees  of  fatness  were  used,  do  not  show  a  sufficient 
saving  in  feed  by  grinding  to  pay  for  the  cost  of  the  prep- 
aration. 

Value  of  grinding  as  affected  by  age  and  finish  of  pigs. 

The  effect  of  grinding  corn  for  pigs  can  be  interpreted 
more  accurately,  however,  if  the  results  for  the  lighter 
pigs  are  placed  in  one  group  and  those  from  the  heavier 
animals  in  another.  King  arranged  the  results  of  the 
eight  Indiana  trials  in  this  way  as  shown  in  Table  CLXIV. 

TABLE  CLXIV.  —  EFFECT  OF  WEIGHT  AND  CONDITION  ON  THE 
ECONOMY  OF  GRINDING  CORN  FOR  FATTENING  PIGS 


AVEKAGE 

AVERAGE 

TOTAL  FEED 

INITIAL 

CONDITION  OF 

DAILY 

EATEN  FOR 

WEIGHT 

CORN  FEED 

GAIN 

EACH  100  LB. 

PER  PIG 

PER  PIG 

GAIN 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

First  period 

Ear-corn 

.826 

393 

3  months 

78 

Shelled  corn 

.806 

398 

Ground  corn 

.826 

393 

Second  period 

Ear-corn 

1.263 

444 

3  months 

180 

Shelled  corn 

1.266 

452 

Ground  corn 

1.390 

425 

The  percentage  of  feed  saved  by  grinding  during  the 
two  feeding  periods  is  shown  in  Table  CLXV. 


TABLE  CLXV.  —  SHOWING  PERCENTAGE    OF   FEED    SAVED    BY 
GRINDING 


FIRST  PERIOD 

SECOND  PERIOD 

Percentage  saved 
Percentage  saved 

over  ear-corn 
over  shelled  corn 

0 
1.3 

4.3 
6.0 

340  Pork  Production 

It  would  appear  from  these  results  that  growing  and 
fattening  pigs,  up  to  a  weight  of  about  150  pounds,  do 
as  well  on  unground  as  on  ground  corn.  Pigs  during  the 
last  three  months  of  their  market  preparation,  however, 
seem  to  gain  faster  and  more  economically  on  ground 
corn  than  on  either  ear  or  shelled  corn.  A  study  of  the 
detailed  results  by  successive  months  of  these  experi- 
ments shows  that  the  heavier  and  fatter  the  pigs  be- 
come, the  greater  is  the  advantage  of  grinding.  This 
rule  is  also  suggested  and  largely  confirmed  by  the  results 
of  the  Iowa  experiments. 

General  conclusions. 

The  following  general  conclusions  appear  to  be  justified 
by  all  the  experimental  results  considered : 

1.  There  is  no  advantage  in  feeding  dry  shelled  corn 
over  ear-corn,  so  far  as  rate  and  economy  of  gains  are 
concerned. 

2.  Pigs   receiving   shelled   corn   soaked   twelve   hours 
make  faster  gains  with  slightly  less  feed  than  do  pigs 
fed  ear-corn.     This  is  particularly  true  for  older  pigs 
during  the  latter  months  of  fattening  and  when  they  are 
on  grass  or  forage  crops. 

3.  Ear-corn  or  dry  shelled  corn  will,  as  a  rule,  give  as 
rapid  and  more  economical  gains  with  pigs  weighing  less 
than  150  pounds  as  will  ground  corn  fed  wet  or  soaked. 
Pigs  weighing  from  150  pounds  up  to  market  weights,  how- 
ever, will  usually  gain  faster  with  from  4  to  6  per  cent  less 
feed  for  a  unit  of  gain,  when  on  ground  corn  fed  wet  or 
soaked  than  when  on  ear  or  dry  shelled  corn. 

4.  When  corn  is  ground,  it  should  be  wet  or  soaked 
before   feeding.     Dry   corn-meal   does   not   seem   to  be 
relished,  especially  by  young  pigs. 


Preparation  of  Feeds  341 

5.  Corn  and  cob-meal  (ground  ear-corn)  is  too  bulky 
and  hard  to  digest  to  make  it  at  all  suitable  for  growing 
or  fattening  pigs. 

6.  In  general,  pigs  experience  a  temporary  check  in 
gains  when  for  any  reason  a  change  is  made  from  soaked 
or  ground  corn  to  ear-corn. 

The  actual  estimated  cost  of  shelling  and  grinding  a 
bushel  of  corn  at  the  Iowa  Station  1  in  1907  and  1908  was 
as  follows  :  for  shelling,  1  cent ;  for  shelling  and  grinding, 
3  cents;  for  grinding  fine  corn  and  cob-meal,  6  cents. 
The  charge  made  by  mills  for  shelling  and  grinding  corn 
at  the  present  time  (1918)  is  around  10  cents  a  bushel. 

SMALL   GRAINS 

Grinding  and  soaking. 

When  wheat,  oats,  rye,  barley,  kafir,  milo,  and  other 
small  grains  are  fed  to  pigs  unground,  a  larger  proportion 
passes  through  undigested  than  when  whole  corn  is  fed. 
For  this  reason  and  also  because  the  whole  small  grains 
are  not  eaten  with  relish,  experiments  generally  show  a 
very  much  larger  saving  from  grinding  small  grains  than 
from  grinding  corn.  In  fact  when  grinding  is  at  all 
possible,  small  grains  should  not,  as  a  rule,  be  fed  in  any 
other  condition.  The  ground  grains  may  be  expected 
to  give  better  results,  also,  when  given  wet  or  soaked 
than  when  fed  dry.  When  grinding  is  not  possible, 
small  hard  grains  should  be  soaked  for  at  least  twelve 
hours. 

These  general  conclusions  are  based  on  the  results  of 
feeding  tests  conducted  at  the  various  experiment  stations 
of  this  country  and  Canada.  After  a  thorough  compila- 

i  Bull.  106. 


342  Pork  Production 

tion  of  the  experimental  data  available  on  this  question 
in  1904,  Rommel l  concluded  that  approximately  12.26 
per  cent  of  the  small  grains  is  saved  by  grinding. 

Cooking. 

As  the  result  of  numerous  practical  feeding  tests,  it  has 
been  definitely  established  that  the  old-time  practice 
of  cooking  feed  for  pigs  is  a  detriment  rather  than  a  bene- 
fit. A  compilation  of  the  results  of  seventeen  experiments 
by  Henry  and  Morrison  2  in  which  corn,  barley,  peas, 
and  various  combinations  of  these  were  fed  cooked  and 
uncooked,  showed  in  every  instance  but  one  an  actual 
loss  from  cooking.  The  averaged  results  showed  100 
pounds  of  uncooked  grain  equal  to  114  pounds  of  cooked 
grain. 

Cooking  feed  for  swine  may  be  justified  and  even  bene- 
ficial under  certain  special  conditions,  however.  In 
fitting  hogs  for  show,  a  few  breeders  believe  that  the 
highest  condition  of  bloom  is  facilitated  by  cooking  the 
feed,  although,  no  doubt,  the  tendency  is  to  exaggerate 
the  benefits.  Sick  animals  or  those  out  of  condition  may 
be  helped,  also,  by  an  occasional  ration  of  cooked  feeds. 

Proportion  of  water  in  slop. 

Although  ground  grains  give  a  little  better  results  when 
fed  wet  than  dry,  the  proportion  of  water  in  the  slop  does 
not  appear  to  be  important  except  when  excessive  quanti- 
ties are  supplied.  This  is  indicated  by  the  results  of  a 
trial  made  by  Plumb  and  Van  Norman  3  at  the  Indiana 
Station  as  shown  in  Table  CLXVI. 

1  Bur.  An.  Ind.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bull.  47. 

2  "  Feeds  and  Feeding,"  p,  576,  1915.  3  Bull.  8$. 


Preparation  of  Feeds 


343 


TABLE  CLXVI.  —  THE  EFFECT  OF  THE  PROPORTION  OF  WATER 
IN  THE  SLOP 


NUMBER 
OF  PIGS 

LENGTH 
OF  EXPERI- 
MENT 

AVERAGE 
INITIAL 
WEIGHT 
PER  PIG 

AVERAGE 
DAILY 
GAIN  PER 
PIG 

FEED 
EATEN  FOR 
EACH 
100  LB. 
GAIN 

Corn-meal   and 

days 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

shorts  (dry) 

4 

147 

60 

1.08 

359 

1  corn-meal  and 

shorts 

1  water   .     .     . 

4 

147 

59 

1.10 

380 

1  corn-meal  and 

shorts 

2  water   .     .     . 

4 

147 

60 

1.10 

374 

1  corn-meal  and 

shorts 

3  water   .     .     . 

4 

147 

60 

1.05 

375 

In  this  experiment,  slightly  more  economical  results 
were  obtained  from  the  ration  when  fed  dry  than  when 
given  as  a  slop.  The  rate  and  economy  of  gains  were 
not  materially  affected  by  increasing  the  proportion  of 
water  to  dry  feed  from  one  to  three. 


METHODS   OF   FEEDING 

Successful  feeding  of  any  class  of  live-stock  involves 
not  only  the  selection  of  a  suitable  combination  of  feeds, 
but  also  the  application  of  the  ration  with  judgment  and 
a  constant  regard  to  the  little  things  which  may  become 
large  in  importance  if  ignored. 

Hand  feeding. 

The  amount  of  the  ration  supplied  at  each  feed  merits 
special  care  when  full  rations  are  given.  It  is  better  to 


344  Pork  Production 

under-feed  than  to  over-feed.  In  order  to  maintain  a 
keen  appetite,  to  avoid  sour  troughs,  and  to  insure  the 
most  rapid  gains  and  the  fewest  setbacks,  a  little  less 
should  be  fed  at  each  time  than  would  actually  be  eaten. 
A  good  hog-raiser  takes  more  time  in  feeding  his  pigs 
than  is  necessary  merely  to  throw  them  their  rations; 
he  watches  them  eat  and  notes  how  they  "clean  up." 
When  the  weather  is  extremely  hot,  they  will  want  less 
feed  than  when  it  is  cool.  Feeding  three  times  a  day  is 
practicable  when  maximum  gains  are  desired. 

When  feeding  limited  rations,  it  is  particularly  impor- 
tant that  ample  trough  room  be  provided  so  that  every 
pig  receives  his  share.  This  is  especially  true  when  the 
pigs  are  of  unequal  size.  So  far  as  practicable,  the  pig 
crop  should  be  graded  so  that  only  those  of  about  equal 
strength  are  together.  Like  most  stock,  pigs  must  be 
fed  regularly  if  the  best  results  are  obtained.  Careless 
methods  and  irregular  habits  on  the  part  of  the  feeder 
are  perhaps  more  often  responsible  for  the  failure  of  the 
pigs  than  almost  any  other  factor. 

The  pigs  must  be  healthy  and  thrifty  to  respond 
properly  to  good  rations.  It  is,  therefore,  of  considerable 
importance  when  feeding  a  group  of  pigs  to  make  certain 
that  their  supply  of  water  is  abundant,  easily  accessible, 
and  pure,  that  they  are  free  from  worms  and  lice,  and 
that  their  sleeping  quarters  are  clean  and  comfortable. 

The  self-feeder. 

This  device  makes  it  possible  for  the  pigs  to  feed  them- 
selves. The  feeds  are  supplied  in  bulk  or  quantity  suffi- 
cient to  last  several  days  or  a  week,  the  pigs  being  given 
their  individual  liberty  to  eat  as  often  as  they  wish  and 
as  much  at  any  time  as  their  appetites  dictate  or  their 


Preparation  of  Feeds  345 

capacities  permit.  Compared  with  the  ordinary' method 
of  hand-feeding,  the  self-feeder  makes  two  important 
changes :  instead  of  receiving  their  feed  in  measured 
amounts  and  at  regular  intervals,  the  pigs  have  their 
individual  freedom  regarding  both  the  time  of  eating  and 
the  amount  consumed. 

In  addition  to  these  two  features,  the  self-feeder  intro- 
duces a  third.  The  several  feeds  supplied  in  the  self- 
feeder  are  usually  placed  in  separate  compartments,  in 
consequence  of  which  the  pig  is  permitted  free  choice 
of  the  kind  and  amount  of  each  feed.  Corn  or  some  other 
grain  is  placed  in  one  compartment  or  feeder  and  a  ni- 
trogenous or  protein  supplement  in  another.  Frequently, 
also,  charcoal,  wood-ashes,  lime,  and  salt  are  supplied  in 
other  compartments,  mixed  together  or  fed  separately. 
In  other  words,  this  feature  of  the  self-feeder  gives  each 
pig  the  opportunity  of  balancing  his  own  ration.  When 
the  feeds  are  supplied  separately  in  this  way,  the  method 
of  feeding  is  usually  designated  as  "self-fed,  free-choice," 
or  "cafeteria"  style. 

The  common  practice  of  hauling  out  on  the  pasture  a 
wagon-load  of  ear-corn  and  then  scooping  out  an  allow- 
ance each  day  sufficient  to  keep  feed  before  the  pigs  all 
the  time,  is  in  reality  a  type  of  self-feeding.  Although  a 
few  hog-men  can  be  found  here  and  there  who  have 
practiced  for  many  years  the  present  method  of  self- 
feeding,  its  general  use  is  comparatively  recent.  The 
present  general  interest  had  its  beginning  with  the  ex- 
perimental studies  by  Evvard  at  the  Iowa  Experiment 
Station  and  by  Weaver  at  the  Missouri  Experiment 
Station,  which  were  begun  in  1914.  Since  then  a  number 
of  other  stations  have  undertaken  and  completed  exten- 
sive tests  of  the  self-feeding  system. 


346 


Pork  Production 


Self-feeding  versus  hand-feeding. 

In  Table  CLXVII  the  results  of  twenty-four  separate 
comparisons  of  self-feeding  and  hand-feeding  are  sum- 
marized. These  experiments  were  conducted  at  five 
different  experiment  stations  x  and  involved  the  use  of 
433  pigs  averaging  approximately  70  pounds  in  weight 
when  the  trials  began.  On  the  average,  the  experiments 
covered  a  period  of  101  days,  the  shortest  being  42  and 
the  longest  193  days.  In  eleven  of  the  trials  the  pigs 
were  on  forage,  and  in  thirteen  in  dry  lots.  In  each  case, 
the  hand-fed  pigs  were  given  full  rations  and  the  propor- 
tion of  supplements  fed  determined  by  the  usual  methods. 
In  each  case  but  one,  the  self-fed  pigs  were  given  their 
feeds  in  separate  or  individual  compartments  of  the  feeder. 
In  this  case  corn  was  fed  in  one  compartment  and  a 
mixture  of  middlings  and  tankage  in  the  other,  thus  per- 
mitting only  a  partial  "free-choice"  in  selecting  the  feeds. 

TABLE  CLXVII.  —  SUMMARY  :    HAND-FEEDING   VERSUS  SELF- 
FEEDING  (FREE  CHOICE)   (Av.  of  23  Exps.) 


AVERAGE 

TOTAL 

AVERAGE 

AVERAGE 

AVERAGE 

TOTAL  CONCEN- 

METHOD OF  FEEDING 

NUM- 
BER OF 

LENGTH  OF 
EXPERI- 

INITIAL 
WEIGHT 

DAILY 
GAIN 

TRATES  CON- 
SUMED FOR 

PIGS  2 

MENTS 

PER  PIG 

PER  PIG 

EACH  100  LB. 

GAINS 

days 

ft. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Hand-fed      .     .     . 

217 

101 

71 

1.260 

395 

Self-fed,  free  choice 

216 

101 

71 

1.375 

390 

1  Evvard  and  Dunn,  Iowa  Exp.  Sta.,  Circ.  letter;  Weaver, 
Mo.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  144;  W.  J.  Carmichael,  111.  Exp.  Sta., 
Circ.  letter;  B.  E.  Carmichael  and  Robison,  Ohio  Exp.  Sta., 
letter ;  Snyder,  Neb.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  165. 

8  Assuming  five  pigs  in  each  lot  of  the  Iowa  experiments 
where  number  was  not  stated. 

3  Wheat  instead  of  corn  was  fed  in  one  experiment. 


Preparation  of  Feeds  347 

As  a  general  rule,  the  self-fed  pigs  ate  more  and  made 
faster  gains  than  those  which  were  hand-fed.  In  nine- 
teen of  the  trials,  the  self-fed  pigs  gained  the  faster, 
while  in  five  the  hand-fed  pigs  made  the  quickest  gain. 
According  to  the  summary  table,  the  average  daily  gain 
of  the  self-fed  pigs  was  more  than  9  per  cent  faster  than  for 
the  hand-fed  animals. 

There  was  more  difference  in  the  rate  of  gain  from  the 
two  methods  of  feeding  than  in  the  amount  of  feed  re- 
quired to  produce  a  given  gain.  On  the  average,  the  self- 
fed  pigs  ate  1.26  per  cent  less  concentrates  for  a  unit  of 
gain  than  the  hand-fed  ones.  In  these  trials  a  smaller 
proportion  of  tankage  and  shorts  was  eaten,  also,  by  those 
receiving  their  rations  in  the  self-feeder,  "free-choice" 
style. 

These  figures  appear  to  supply  rather  convincing  evi- 
dence in  favor  of  the  self-feeder  when  it  is  the  intention 
to  push  the  pigs  for  an  early  market.  When  the  saving 
of  labor  is  also  considered,  the  practicability  of  this 
method  of  feeding  would  seem  to  be  established,  espe- 
cially when  the  feeds  offered  are  the  same  as  those  sup- 
plied in  the  above  experiments,  corn,  wheat  middlings  or 
shorts,  and  tankage. 

With  these  feeds  at  least  the  self-fed  pigs  ate  no  more  of 
the  expensive  nitrogenous  or  protein  supplements  than 
was  necessary  to  balance  the  corn.  Also,  the  gains 
would  indicate  that  their  consumption  of  these  feeds 
was  ample  in  satisfying  their  body  needs.  That  the 
appetite  or  instinct  of  the  pig  cannot  always  be  depended 
on,  however,  to  insure  the  minimum  consumption  of 
protein  feeds  for  economy  of  gains,  is  also  probably 
true.  When  the  grain  or  other  carbohydrate  feed  offered 
in  a  self-feeder  is  less  palatable  than  the  particular  protein 


348  Pork  Production 

feed  supplied,  the  tendency  is  for  the  pigs  to  consume  a 
larger  amount  of  the  latter  than  is  necessary  for  balance, 
or  desirable  from  the  standpoint  of  economy  (see  Table 
CXLV,  page  306).  This  is  particularly  important  when 
the  grains  are  relatively  cheap  and  protein  supplements 
high.  With  corn  as  the  principal  carbohydrate  feed, 
however,  there  will  be  little  disposition  on  the  part  of  the 
pig  to  eat  more  tankage  or  mill  feeds  than  necessary  to 
supply  the  necessary  balance. 

Summary  and  conclusions. 

The  important  advantages  of  the  self-feeding  method 
of  growing  and  fattening  pigs  for  market  may  be  enumer- 
ated as  follows : 

1.  Self-fed  pigs  usually  eat  more  and  gain  faster  than 
do   hand-fed  pigs.     This   is  perhaps  its   most   valuable 
feature. 

2.  Pigs  on  self-feeders    make  as  much    gain    from  a 
given  amount  of  feed  as  do  hand-fed  animals. 

3.  The  self -feeding  method  is  a  labor-saver,  especially 
for  pigs  which  are  out  on  pasture  or  forage  crops. 

4.  When  the  carbohydrate  and  protein  feeds  are  sup- 
plied in  separate  compartments,  i.e.,  "free-choice"  style, 
as  is  customary,  the  pigs  may  be  depended  on  to  eat 
sufficient   protein   to    satisfy   their   physiological   needs. 
When  corn  or  other  equally  palatable  carbonaceous  feed 
is  given,  the  pigs  will  eat  no  more  of  the  expensive  protein 
feeds  than  is  necessary  for  balance  or  economy  of  gains. 

Few  disadvantages  attend  the  self-feeding  method 
when  used  with  judgment  and  care  and  when  maximum 
gains  are  desired.  However,  a  few  points  must  be  ob- 
served if  the  best  or  even  satisfactory  results  are  secured. 

1.  The  self-feeding  method  is  not  adapted  to  the  feed- 


Preparation  of  Feeds  349 

ing  of  any  class  of  swine  v/hen  rapid  gains  are  not  desired. 
The  question  of  the  adaptability  of  the  self-feeder  is 
largely  one  of  the  advisability  of  full  feeding. 

2.  For  satisfactory  results  in  self-feeding,  it  is  neces- 
sary that  both  carbonaceous  and  protein  feeds  be  sup- 
plied, and  that  these  feeds  be  palatable.     If  the  carbo- 
hydrate feed  is  not  well  liked  and  the  protein  is  expensive, 
it  will  be  best  to  mix  the  two  in  the  proper  proportion, 
thus  eliminating  the  "free-choice"  feature. 

3.  The  self-feeder  does  not  relieve  one  of  all  the  work 
or  responsibility   in  feeding.    The   "feeder"   should  be 
visited  daily.     The   spaces  which  regulate   the  flow  of 
feed  should  be  carefully  adjusted  so  that  no  feed  is  wasted, 
all  the  compartments  of  the  feeder  must  be  kept  open  and 
feeding  all  the  time,  and  the  caked  mud  should  be  re- 
moved frequently  from  the  troughs.     The  feeder  should 
not  be  set  in  a  mud  hole,  but  rather  on  a  concrete  or  board 
floor;    and  it  should  be  located  in  the  shade  in  summer 
and  a  warm  protected  place    in  winter.     To  make  the 
self-feeding  system  for  fattening  pigs  complete  and  most 
efficient,  a  feeder  containing  salt,  charcoal,  and  wood- 
ashes  or  lime  should  be  provided,  especially  when  the  pigs 
are  confined  to  the  dry  lot. 


CHAPTER  XV 

THE  COST  OF   PRODUCING  PORK 

IN  this  chapter  are  brought  together  the  several  deter- 
minations which  have  been  made  in  the  previous  chapters 
on  the  feed  costs  of  maintaining  the  breeding  herd  and 
growing  and  finishing  the  market  pig.  To  these  have 
been  added  the  cost  for  labor,  interest,  depreciation  and 
insurance  on  equipment,  and  other  charges.  With  these 
data,  the  attempt  has  been  made  to  determine  the  actual 
cost  of  production  under  corn-belt  conditions. 


TABLE   CLXVIII.  —  SHOWING  THE  COST  OF  PRODUCING   THE 
FINISHED  225-PouND  PIG  EXPRESSED  IN  TERMS  OF  CORN 


RATIO  BETWEEN 

SYSTEM  OF  MANAGEMENT 

TOTAL 
COST 

FEED 
COST 

LABOR 
COST 

OTHER 
COST 

COST  OP  100  LB. 
LIVE  PORK  AND 
THE  PRICE  OP  A 

BUSHEL  OP  CORN 

A.   When  produced 

by   gilts   only,   5 

pigs  raised  to  the 

litter 

25.91 

18.24 

2.03 

5.64 

11.51:1 

bu. 

bu. 

bu. 

bu. 

B.    When  produced 

by  mature   sows 

kept    until    four 

years  old,  one  lit- 

ter   annually,    7 

pigs  raised  to  the 

Utter 

25.29 

18.05 

1.62 

5.62 

11.24:1 

bu. 

bu. 

bu. 

bu. 

350 


PLATE  IX.  —  Above,  Location  of  wholesale  cuts  of  lard  hog.  1. 
Head;  2.  Shoulder;  3.  Loin;  4.  Belly;  5.  Ham;  below,  Points  of 
the  hog;  1.  Snout;  2.  Eyes;  3.  Face;  4.  Ears;  5.  Jowl;  6.  Neck; 
8.  Foreleg;  9.  Hindleg;  10.  Breast;  11.  Chest  line;  12.  Back; 
13.  Loin;  14.  Side;  15.  Tail;  16.  Fore  flank;  17.  Hind  flank;  18. 
Fore  arm;  19.  Rump;  20.  Belly;  21.  Ham;  22.  Stifle;  23.  Hock; 
24.  Pastern ;  25.  Dewclaw ;  26.  Foot. 


The  Cost  of  Producing  Pork 


351 


TABLE  CLXVIII.  —  Continued 


RATIO  BETWEEN 

SYSTEM  OP  MANAGEMENT 

TOTAL 
COST 

FEED 
COST 

LABOR 
COST 

OTHER 
COST 

COST  OF  100  LB. 
LIVE  PORK  AND 
THE  PRICE  OP  A 

BUSHEL  OF  CORN 

C.    When  produced 

by    mature    sows 

kept    until    four 

years    old,    three 

litters  every  two 

years    after    ma- 

turity,     7      pigs 

raised      to      the 

litter 

24.58 

17.73 

1.47 

5.38 

10.93  :  1 

bu. 

bu. 

bu. 

bu. 

D.    When  produced 

by   mature    sows 

kept    until    four 

years     old,     two 

litters      annually 

after  maturity,  7 

pigs  raised  to  the 

litter 

24.16 

17.56 

1.37 

5.23 

10.74  :  1 

bu. 

bu. 

bu. 

bu. 

The  final  result  of  these  studies  is  summarized  in  Table 
CLXVIII,  in  which  the  cost  of  production  is  expressed 
in  terms  of  corn. 

The  methods  employed  in  arriving  at  these  results,  and 
the  data  on  which  the  determinations  are  based,  appear 
in  the  following  pages  : 

I.    Feed  cost  of  growing  and  finishing  the  market  pig 

(35-225  Ib.)  : 
1.   With  good  forage  crops,  — 

(a)  760  feed  units  or  pounds  of  concentrates 

©  l^perlb $11.40 

(6)   One-fifteenth  acre  good  forage  @  $12.00  per 

acre 80 

Total  feed  costs  .  .12.20 


352  Pork  Production 

2.   Under  dry  lot  conditions,  — 

893  feed  units  or  Ib.  of  concentrates  @  \%i 

perlb $13.39 

II.    Other  costs  of  growing  and  finishing  the  market 

pig: 
(a)   Vaccination 75 

(6)    Interest  on  average  value  of  pig  for  8   mo. 

($12  ©5%) 40 

(c)  Interest,     depreciation     and     insurance     on 

general  equipment 2.00 

(d)  Risk  of  loss  (2%) 24 

Total  other  costs 3.39 

Total  feed  and  other  costs  of  growing  and  finishing 

the  market  pig 15.59 

To  the  above  must  be  added  the  cost  of  the  pig 
at  weaning  time.  This  will  be  influenced  prin- 
cipally by  the  system  of  breeding  followed  and 
the  number  of  pigs  raised  to  the  litter. 


WHEN   PHODUCED    BY   GILT.     AFTER   WEANING   HER   LITTER 

GILT  is  FATTENED  AND  SOLD  FOR  PORK 
I.   Feed  cost  of  raising  the  sow  pig  to  breeding  age 

(35  to  200  Ib.) : 
(a)  577  feed  units  or  pounds  of  concentrates  @ 

1M  perlb $8.65 

(6)   One-fifteenth  acre  good  forage  @  $12.00  per 

acre 80 

Total  feed  costs 9.45 

II.  Cost  of  feeding  gilt  from  breeding  to  farrowing 
time  (567  feed  units  or  pounds  of  concentrates 
®\U  perlb.) 8.50 

III.  Cost  of  feeding  sow  (gilt)  and  nursing  litter  (713 

feed  units  or  pounds  of  concentrates  @  1  ty  per  Ib. )     10. 70 

IV.  Other  costs  of  raising  gilt  and  maintaining  her  to 

17  mo.  of  age  : 

(a)  Charge  for  sow  pig  (estimated)      .....       5.00 
(&)  Interest  on  average  value  of  gilt  (17  mo.     @ 

5%) 1.41 

(c)  Risk  of  loss  (3%) 60 

(d)  Charge  for  vaccination 75 

(e)  Interest,  depreciation,  and  insurance  on  gen- 

eral equipment 6.00 


The  Cost  of  Producing  Pork  353 

(/)    Service  fee $  2.00 

(0)   Labor 10.00 

Total  other  costs 25.76 

Total  feed  plus  other  costs  of  litter,  at  weaning 

time 54.41 

V.  Value  of  gilt  for  pork  (300  Ib.   @  $9.08  per  cwt. 

minus  cost  of  50  Ib.  gain  @  $7.53  per  cwt.)  .     .  23.49 

Total  cost  of  weaned  litter  produced  by  gilt    .     .  30.92 
The  total  cost  of  each  pig  would,  therefore,  be  as 

follows : 

1.   With  4  pigs  raised  to  the  litter 7.73 

•    2.        "     5     "          "     "     "          " 6.18 

3.  "     6     "          «     «     «          ".,....  5.15 

4.  "     7     "                                 " 4.42 

B 

WHEN  PRODUCED  BY  MATURE  Sows  KEPT  UNTIL  FOUR  YEARS 
OLD  AND  YIELDING  ONE  LITTER  ANNUALLY.     AFTER  WEAN- 
ING HER  FOURTH  LITTER  SHE  is  FATTENED  AND  SOLD   FOR 
PORK 
I.    Feed  cost  of  raising  the  sow  pig  to  breeding  age 

(35-200  Ib.) $9.45 

II.    Cost  of  feeding  gilt  from  breeding  to  farrowing  time       8.50 

III.  Cost  of  feeding  sow  (gilt)  and  nursing  litter     .     .     10.70 

IV.  Cost  of  feeding  open  yearling  sow  six  months  dur- 

ing summer  (300  feed  units  or  pounds  of  con- 
centrates  @   1%£  per  Ib.  plus  pasture  charge, 

$1.50) 6.00 

V.  Cost  of  feeding  pregnant  sow  during  three  winters 
(1605  feed  units  or  pounds  of  concentrates  @ 
l^perlb.) 24.07 

VI.  Cost  of  feeding  sow  and  three  nursing  litters  (2377 

feed  units  or  pounds  of  concentrates  @  1%$  per 

Ib.) 35.66 

VII.    Cost  of  maintaining  open  sow  during  two  summers 
of  six  mo.  (98  feed  units  or  pounds  of  concen- 
trates @  \H  per  Ib.  plus  $6.00  forage  charge)     .       7.47 
VIII.    Other  costs  of  raising  and  maintaining  brood  sow 
four  years : 

(a)  Charge  for  sow  pig  (estimated) 5.00 

(6)   Four  years  interest  on  average  value  of  sow 

($40.00  @  5%) 8.00 

(c)  Risk  of  loss  (1 1  %  annually) 2.40 

(d)  Charge  for  vaccination 75 

2A 


354  Pork  Production 

(e)    Interest,  depreciation,  and  insurance  on  gen- 
eral equipment  for  four  years $24.00 

(/)    Four  service  fees 8.00 

(g}   Labor  for  four  years 40.00 

Total  feed  plus  other  costs  of  four  litters  at  weaning 

time 190.00 

IX.    Value  of  sow  for  pork  (425  Ib.  @  $8.78  per  cwt. 

minus  cost  of  75  Ib.  gain  @  $7.87  per  cwt.)     .     .     31.40 
Total  cost  each  weaned  litter  produced  by  mature 

sow  raising  one  litter  annually 39.65 

The  total  cost  of  each  weaned  pig  would,  therefore, 

be  as  follows : 

1.  With  5  pigs  raised  to  the  litter 7.93 

2.  "     6     "        "       "     "        " 6.63 

3.  "     7     "        "       "     "        " 5.66 

4.  "     8     "        "       "     "        " 4.96 

C 

WHEN  PRODUCED  BY  MATURE  Sows  KEPT  UNTIL  FOUR  YEARS 
OLD    AND    YIELDING    THREE    LITTERS    EVERY    Two  YEARS 
AFTER  MATURITY    (TOTAL   OF  5   LITTERS).     AFTER  WEAN- 
ING HER  FIFTH  LITTER  SHE  is  FATTENED  AND  SOLD  FOR  PORK 
I.    Feed  cost  of  raising  the  sow  pig  to  breeding  age 

(35-200  Ib.) $9.45 

II.    Cost  of  feeding  gilt  from  breeding  to  farrowing 

time 8.50 

III.  Cost  of  feeding  the  sow  (gilt)  and  nursing  litter    .     10.70 

IV.  Cost  of  feeding  open  yearling  sow  six  months  dur- 

ing summer 6.00 

V.    Cost  of  feeding  pregnant  sow  during  three  winters     24.07 
VI.    Cost  of  feeding  pregnant  sow  during  one  summer 
(76  feed  units  or  pounds  of  concentrates  at  \\$. 

per  Ib.  plus  $3.00  pasture  charge) 4.14 

VII.    Cost  of  feeding  sow  and  four  nursing  litters  (3170 
feed  units  or  pounds  of  concentrates  @  I \i  per 

Ib.) 47.55 

VIII.    Cost  of  maintaining  open  sow  during  one  summer 
of  six  mo.  (49  feed  units  or  pounds  of  concen- 
trates @  \\i  per  Ib.  plus  $3.00  forage  charge)     .       3.73 
IX.    Other  costs  of  raising  and  maintaining  brood  sow 
four  years : 

(a)  Charge  for  sow  pig  (estimated) 5.00 

(6)  Four  years  interest  on  average  value  of  sow 

($40  @  5%) 8.00 


The  Cost  of  Producing  Pork  355 

(c)  Risk  of  loss  (If  %  annually) $  2.80 

(d)  Charge  for  vaccination 75 

(e)  Interest,  depreciation,  and  insurance  on  gen- 

eral equipment  for  four  years 24.00 

(/)  Five  service  fees 10.00 

(g)  Labor  for  four  years  . 45.00 

Total  feed  plus  other  costs  of  five  litters  at  weaning 

time 209.69 

X.  Value  of  sow  for  pork 31.40 

Total  cost  each  weaned  litter  produced  by  mature 

sow  raising  three  litters  every  two  years  after 

maturity 35.66 

The  total  cost  of  each  weaned  pig  would,  therefore, 

be  as  follows : 

1.  With  5  pigs  raised  to  the  litter 7.13 

2.  "     6      "        "        "     "        " 5.94 

3.  "     7     "        "       "     "        " 5.07 

4.  "     8     "        «      «     «        » 4.46 

D 

WHEN  PRODUCED  BY  MATURE  Sows  KEPT  UNTIL  FOUR  YEARS 
OLD    AND    YIELDING    Two    LITTERS    EVERY    YEAR    AFTER 
MATURITY   (TOTAL  OF  6    LITTERS).     AFTER   WEANING    HER 
SIXTH  LITTER  SHE  is  FATTENED  AND  SOLD  FOR  PORK 
I.    Feed  cost  of  raising  the  sow  pig  to  breeding  age 

(35-200  Ib.) $9.45 

II.    Cost  of  feeding  gilt  from  breeding  to  farrowing 

time 8.50 

III.  Cost  of  feeding  sow  (gilt)  and  nursing  litter      .     .     10.70 

IV.  Cost  of  feeding  open  yearling  sow  six  months  dur- 

ing the  summer 6.00 

V.    Cost  of  feeding  pregnant  sow  during  three  winters     24.07 
VI.    Cost  of  feeding  pregnant  sow  during  two  summers 
(152  feed  units  or  pounds  of  concentrates  @  1%£ 

per  Ib.  plus  $6.00  pasture  charge) 8.28 

VII.    Cost  of  feeding  sow  and  five  nursing  litters  (3962 
feed  units  or  pounds  of  concentrates  @  1  \  i  per 

Ib.) 59.43 

VIII.    Other  costs  of  raising  and  maintaining  brood  sow 
four  years : 

(a)  Charge  for  sow  pig  (estimated) 5.00 

(6)   Four  years  interest  on  average  value  of  sow 

($40.00  ©  5%) 8.00 

(c)   Risk  of  loss  (2%  annually) 3.20 


356 


Pork  Production 


(d)  Charge  for  vaccination $  0.75 

(e)  Interest,  depreciation,  and  insurance  on  gen- 

eral equipment  for  four  years 24.00 

(/)    Six  service  fees 12.00 

(0)   Labor  for  four  years 50.00 

Total  feed  plus  other  costs  of  six  litters  at  wean- 
ing time 229.38 

IX.   Value  of  sow  for  pork 31.40 

Total  cost  each  weaned  litter  produced  by  mature 
sow  raising  two  litters  every  year  after  matur- 
ity   33.00 

The  total  cost  of  each  wearied  pig  would,  there- 
fore, be  as  follows : 

1.  With  5  pigs  raised  to  the  litter 6.60 

2.  "     6     "        "       "     "      " 5.50 

3.  "     7     "        """"....«..       4.71 

1  "        Q         '*  *'  <(        "  "  A    1O 

A  summarized  statement  of  the  cost  of  the  pigs  at 
weaning  time  when  produced  according  to  these  four 
systems  of  management  is  shown  in  Table  CLXIX. 

TABLE  CLXIX.  —  SHOWING  ENTIRE  COST  OF  THE  INDIVIDUAL 
PIG  AT  WEANING  TIME 


SYSTEM  OF  MANAGEMENT 


NUMBER  OF  PIGS  RAISED  TO  THE  LITTER 


45678 


A.   When   produced   by   gilts 
only 


$7.73 


$5.15 


$4.42 


B.  When  produced  by  mature 
sows  kept  until  4  yr.  old, 
one  litter  annually  .  .  . 


7.93 


6.61 


5.66 


$4.96 


C.  When  produced  by  mature 
sows  kept  until  4  yr.  old, 
three  litters  every  two  years 
after  maturity 


7.13 


5.94 


5.07 


4.46 


D.  When  produced  by  mature 
sows  kept  until  4  yr.  old, 
two  litters  every  year  after 
maturity 


6.60 


5.50 


4.71 


4.12 


The  Cost  of  Producing  Pork 


357 


Combining  now  the  cost  of  growing  and  finishing  the 
pig  with  the  cost  at  weaning  time,  the  entire  cost  of  the 
finished  225-pound  market  pig  is  shown  in  Table  CLXX. 

TABLE  CLXX.  —  SHOWING  THE  ENTIRE  COST  OF  THE  FINISHED 
225-PouND  MARKET  PIG 


SYSTEM  OF  MANAGEMENT 

NUMBER  OF  PIGS  RAISED  TO  THE  LITTER 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

A.  When  produced 
by  gilts  only 

$23.32 
or 
10.36 
per  cwt. 

$21.77 
or 
9.67 
per  cwt. 

$20.74 
or 
9.21 
per  cwt. 

$20.01 
or 

8.89 
per  cwt. 

B.  When  produced 
by  mature  sows 
kept  until  four 
years  old,  one  litter 
annually 

23.52 
or 
10.45 
per  cwt. 

22.20 
or 
9.86 
per  cwt. 

21.25 
or 
9.44 

per  cwt. 

$20.55 
or 
9.13 

per  cwt. 

C.  When  produced 
by  mature  sows 
kept  until  four 
years  old,  three  lit- 
ters every  two  years 
after  maturity 

22.72 

or 
10.09 
per  cwt. 

21.53 
or 
9.57 
per  cwt. 

20.66 
or 
9.18 
per  cwt. 

20.05 
or 
8.91 
per  cwt. 

D.  When  produced 
by  mature  sows 
kept  until  four 
years  old,  two  lit- 
ters annually  after 
maturity 

22.19 
or 
9.86 
per  cwt. 

21.09 
or 
9.37 
per  cwt. 

20.30 
or 
9.02 
per  cwt. 

19.71 
or 

8.76 
per  cwt. 

Not  all  of  the  expense  of  producing  pork  is  represented 
by  the  cost  of  the  feed  eaten.  If  the  items  of  expense 
are  grouped  under  the  headings  feed,  labor,  and  other 
costs,  the  distribution  will  be  as  it  appears  in  Table 
CLXXL 


358 


Pork  Production 


TABLE  CLXXI.  —  SHOWING  DISTRIBUTION  OF  COSTS  IN  PRO- 
DUCING THE  FINISHED  225-PouND  MARKET  PIG 


SYSTEM  OP  MANAGEMENT 

FEED  COST 

LABOR  COST 

OTHER 

COSTS 

A.  When  produced  by  gilts  only, 
5  pigs  raised  to  the  litter  .  .  . 

70.39% 

7.85% 

21.76% 

B.  When  produced  by  mature 
sows  kept  until  four  years  old, 
one  litter  annually,  7  pigs  raised 
to  the  litter  

71.35% 

6.43% 

22.22% 

C.  When  produced  by  mature 
sows  kept  until  four  years  old, 
three  litters  every  two  years  after 
maturity,  7  pigs  raised  to  the 
litter 

72.12% 

6.00% 

21.88% 

D.  When  produced  by  mature 
sows  kept  until  four  years  old, 
two  litters  annually  after  matu- 
rity, 7  pigs  raised  to  the  litter  . 

72.66% 

5.69% 

21.65% 

In  figuring  the  feed  cost  of  producing  the  finished 
market  pig,  feed  was  charged  at  the  rate  of  1^  cents  for 
each  feed  unit,  or  the  equivalent  of  one  pound  of  con- 
centrated feed  such  as  corn.  Charge  for  forage  was  at 
the  comparable  rate  of  $12  an  acre.  At  this  rate  a  bushel 
of  corn  would  cost  84  cents.  If  it  is  assumed  that  the 
rates  used  in  figuring  the  labor  and  other  costs  were 
about  on  a  par  with  84-cent  corn,  it  would  be  possible  to 
express  the  entire  cost  of  the  finished  market  pig  in  terms 
of  corn.  This  has  been  done  with  the  interesting  result 
shown  in  Table  CLXVIII.  In  this  table  is  also  shown  the 
ratio  between  the  actual  cost  of  100  pounds  of  finished 
pork  on  foot  and  the  value  of  a  bushel  of  corn  as  deter- 
mined by  the  results  of  this  study.  A  ratio  of  11.51  to  1, 


The  Cost  of  Producing  Pork  359 

for  example,  means  that  the  actual  cost  of  producing 
100  pounds  of  live  hog  was  found  to  be  equal  to  eleven 
and  fifty-one  hundredths  times  the  cost  of  a  bushel  of 
corn,  when  the  system  of  management  used  was  as  given 
in  A. 

General  observations. 

In  interpreting  the  results  of  this  study,  it  is  important 
to  note  the  systems  of  management  employed,  the  methods 
of  feeding  practiced,  and  the  prices  charged  for  feed, 
labor,  and  other  expenses.  It  is  particularly  important 
to  recollect  that  the  concentrated  feeds  were  charged  at 
the  rate  of  Ij  cents  a  pound,  the  roughages  used  having 
been  reduced  to  their  concentrate  equivalents  according 
to  the  valuations  in  the  Scandinavian  Feed  Unit  system. 

The  conditions  as  a  whole  under  which  the  experiments 
were  conducted  and  on  which  these  calculations  were  largely 
based  were,  no  doubt,  superior  to  the  average  farm  condi- 
tions. Sows  and  pigs  selected  for  experimental  feeding 
must  be  thrifty  and  as  uniform  as  possible  in  feeding 
qualities.  This  results  in  the  exclusion  of  those  indi- 
viduals which  tend  to  pull  down  the  average  performance, 
or  make  the  results  from  comparable  groups  less  reliable. 
First-class  forage  crops  were  generally  used  also,  and  the 
number  of  pigs  carried  by  each  acre  was  large.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  rations  fed  the  brood  sows  were  liberal 
and  the  charges  for  equipment  and  upkeep  were  un- 
doubtedly higher  than  on  the  average  hog  farm.  Further- 
more, the  good  breeder  may  maintain  a  class  of  brood 
sows  which  will  continue  to  be  reliable  breeders  for  a 
longer  period  than  four  years.  On  the  whole,  the  condi- 
tions were  probably  comparable  with  the  average  of  the 
best. 


360  Pork  Production 

The  figures  in  the  above  tables  afford  an  opportunity 
of  comparing  the  cost  of  the  finished  market  pig  under 
four  general  systems  of  production.  In  making  this 
comparison  with  the  idea  of  determining  the  most  profit- 
able system  to  follow,  however,  several  important  con- 
siderations should  be  made.  The  first  is  that  the  gilt 
does  not  produce  nor  raise,  on  the  average,  as  large  litters 
as  the  mature  sow.  The  number  of  pigs  farrowed 
normally  increases  up  to  and  including  the  fourth  litter 
(see  Fig.  8,  page  99).  A  second  important  fact  is 
the  impossibility  of  having  as  early  pigs  when  gilts  are 
exclusively  depended  on  as  when  more  mature  sows  are 
used.  This  means  a  later  and  usually  a  lower  market  for 
pigs  farrowed  by  gilts.  More  important  in  the  long  run, 
probably,  is  the  difficulty  of  improving,  or  even  of  main- 
taining, a  high  average  of  breeding  performance  when 
gilts  only  are  employed.  The  exclusive  use  of  gilts  for 
the  production  of  the  pig  crop  sacrifices  the  opportunity 
of  improving  the  herd  by  selection  based  on  breeding 
performance.  Too  often,  also,  sole  dependence  on  gilts 
results  in  a  deterioration  of  the  herd  in  size  and  feeding 
capacity. 

The  figures  emphasize  strongly  the  importance  of  raising 
two  litters  every  year  from  mature  sows.  Two  litters 
every  year  after  maturity  resulted  in  an  average  reduc- 
tion of  45  cents  a  hundred  in  the  cost  of  production  as 
compared  with  the  system  of  raising  only  one  litter 
annually. 

Finally,  the  importance  of  the  size  of  the  litter  as  a 
factor  in  economy  of  production  is  strikingly  emphasized 
by  the  results.  With  the  smallest  number  of  pigs  to  the 
litter,  the  average  cost  of  production  was  practically  $1.25 
a  hundredweight  greater  than  when  the  largest  number 


The  Cost  of  Producing  Pork  361 

was  produced,  and  the  range  of  variation  was  only  three 
pigs  to  the  litter.  On  the  whole,  it  would  seem  that  large 
litters  and  reliable  breeding  qualities  on  the  part  of  the 
female  herd  represent  a  point  which  merits  special  atten- 
tion in  producing  pork  economically. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
MARKETING  AND  MARKETS 

SUCCESS  with  hogs  involves  not  only  economical  pro- 
duction, but  also  successful  marketing.  The  responsibili- 
ties of  the  producer  do  not  end  until  the  finished  market 
pigs  pass  over  the  scales  into  the  possession  of  the  buyer. 
Since  the  producer  has  to  pay  the  bill,  the  cost  of  market- 
ing the  live  animal  must  be  included  with  that  of  produc- 
tion before  a  determination  of  actual  profits  is  possible. 

For  the  most  successful  marketing,  one  should  have 
knowledge  of  the  methods  and  cost  of  shipping,  familiarity 
with  the  system  of  classifying  and  grading  hogs  at  the 
large  markets,  an  understanding  of  general  market  condi- 
tions, and  the  factors  which  affect  the  supply  and  price 
of  hogs  at  the  dominant  market  centers.  A  rather  brief 
consideration  will  be  given  in  this  chapter  to  the  more 
important  features  of  each  one  of  these  points. 

MARKETING 

Three  general  methods  or  avenues  are  open  to  the 
farmer  for  disposing  of  his  hogs;  namely,  through  the 
large  public  stock  yards  and  packing  centers ;  through  the 
local  butcher  or  small  packer ;  and  in  the  form  of  farm  or 
home-cured  meats.1  The  larger  part  of  the  hogs  pro- 

1  L.  D.  Hall,  F.  M.  Simpson,  and  S.  W.  Doty  :  Rpt.  113,  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agr.  Meat  Situation  in  the  United  States,  Part  V,  "  Costs 
and  Methods  of  Marketing  Livestock  and  Meats."  All  the 
figures  given  on  marketing,  unless  otherwise  indicated,  are  taken 
from  this  report. 

362 


Marketing  and  Markets  363 

duced  in  the  corn-belt  find  their  way  directly  or  indirectly 
to  the  large  slaughtering  or  packing  centers.  In  the 
cotton  states,  in  New  England,  and  the  western  range 
states,  on  the  other  hand,  the  hogs  are  generally  disposed 
of  locally  to  retail  butchers,  or  slaughtered  at  home  and 
the  meat  cured  or  sold  in  the  carcass  fresh.  For  the 
entire  country,  the  Bureau  of  Census  1  gives  the  following 
estimates  for  all  hogs  slaughtered  in  1909 :  63.6  per  cent 
were  killed  in  large  slaughtering  and  meat  packing  estab- 
lishments, 7.5  per  cent  in  retail  slaughter  houses,  and 
28.9  per  cent  on  the  farms  where  grown. 

Shipping. 

Of  the  hogs  shipped  from  the  corn-belt,  23  per  cent  is 
handled  by  the  owners,  while  most  of  the  remaining 
number  is  shipped  by  local  dealers  or  shippers.  In  some 
districts,  particularly  in  Minnesota,  community  live- 
stock shipping  associations  are  performing  a  useful 
function  in  enabling  the  man  with  a  few  hogs  to  be  inde- 
pendent of  the  local  dealer  or  shipper  and  in  giving  him 
the  advantages  of  a  larger  market  at  a  minimum  cost. 
Comparatively  few  hogs  are  purchased  in  the  country  by 
packer  representatives  or  buyers. 

When  practicable,  it  is  advisable  for  the  producer  to 
ship  his  own  hogs.  He  will  be  more  certain  to  receive 
what  his  animals  are  worth  on  the  market  than  he  will 
by  selling  to  a  shipper.  The  average  margin  received  by 
the  local  shipper  or  buyer  for  handling  hogs  in  the  principal 
pork-producing  states  in  the  corn-belt  was  62  cents  a  hun- 
dredweight. Another  important  advantage  in  the  farmer 
shipping  his  own  hogs  is  the  opportunity  afforded  for 
studying  market  requirements  and  the  methods  employed 
1  Bull,  of  the  13th  Census,  1910. 


364  Pork  Production 

by  the  packer  in  handling  and  disposing  of  the  products. 
Most  of  the  knowledge  which  can  be  gained  at  the  large 
market  centers  is  indispensable  to  the  feeder  in  more 
correctly  interpreting  market  conditions,  for  the  most 
intelligent  reading  of  market  reports,  and  in  knowing  the 
weight  and  type  of  hog  for  which  the  highest  prices  are 
commonly  paid  in  the  different  seasons  of  the  year. 

In  shipping  hogs  to  market,  every  effort  should  be  made 
to  prevent  abnormal  shrink  or  loss  in  transit,  and  to  arrive 
at  the  yards  at  a  time  and  with  the  hogs  in  such  condition 
that  their  most  favorable  presentation  to  the  buyer  will 
be  assured.  Unfortunately  all  the  conditions  which  have 
much  to  do  in  guaranteeing  these  results  are  not  under 
the  control  of  the  shipper ;  the  railroads  and  the  weather 
play  very  important  parts.  The  shipper  can  do  much, 
however,  to  help  avoid  delays  and  prevent  heavy  shrink. 

The  freight  agent  should  be  interviewed  early  and  the 
cars  ordered  in  time  to  insure  their  delivery  when  wanted. 
No  very  radical  change  should  be  made  in  the  rations  fed 
the  hogs  two  or  three  days  before  loading.  Hogs  which 
have  been  on  grass  or  forage,  however,  will  shrink  less  if 
confined  to  the  dry  lot  a  week  before  shipping.  Those 
which  have  been  fed  largely  on  slops  should  have  their 
rations  gradually  changed  to  dry  feed,  mostly  corn. 
Hogs  ship  much  better  when  empty  than  when  full  of 
feed,  especially  in  hot  weather.  They  should  not  have 
their  regular  ration  just  before  hauling  to  the  shipping 
point.  They  should  have  a  rest  if  possible  before  being 
loaded  on  to  the  cars.  The  advisability  of  feeding  at  the 
local  shipping  point  before  loading  or  while  in  transit 
should  be  determined  by  the  distance  to  market.  It  is 
very  doubtful  whether  much  feed  should  be  given  the  day 
of  loading,  however,  if  the  hogs  are  due  to  arrive  at  the 


Marketing  and  Markets  365 

market  within  twenty-four  hours  after  leaving  their 
home  yards. 

The  cars  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  before  loading. 
Half  rotted  straw  or  manure  should  not  be  used  for 
bedding,  but  clean  straw  in  winter  and  preferably  sand, 
if  available,  in  summer.  Sawdust,  hay,  cinders,  gravel, 
and  coal  are  also  quite  generally  employed.  Overloading 
in  hot  weather  is  fatal.  They  will  ride  better  if  the 
car  is  just  comfortably  full  when  the  hogs  are  lying 
down.  The  average  number  of  hogs  to  a  car  arriving 
at  the  Chicago  yards  in  1915  was  seventy-six,  and  at 
Kansas  City  eighty-two.  About  18  per  cent  of  the 
stock  cars  owned  by  the  railroads  in  1908  were  double- 
deck  cars.1 

In  driving  and  loading,  the  hogs  should  not  be  hurried 
or  excited.  Crippled  hogs  sell  at  a  discount  of  $1.00  a 
hundred.  Marks  and  lumps  on  hogs,  the  result  of  kicks, 
beatings,  or  injury  in  loading  or  in  transit,  spoil  the  appear- 
ance and  value  of  the  carcass  and  affect  the  selling  price 
proportionally.  Because  of  the  fright  and  worry  caused 
by  rough  handling  and  jostlings  while  on  the  cars,  the 
shipper  should  be  prompt  to  protest  against  any  unneces- 
sary switching  and  general  rough  treatment  when  stops 
are  made  and  additional  cars  are  taken  on. 

In  hot  weather  the  hogs  should  be  hosed  as  often  as 
possible  before  loading  and  in  transit.  Facilities  for  this 
should  be  demanded  at  division  points.  If  the  haul  is 
longer  than  thirty-six  hours,  the  amended  Federal  twenty- 
eight-hour  law  requires  that  stock  be  unloaded  for  rest, 
feed  and  water,  which  frequently  works  a  hardship  on 
the  shipper.  An  ingenious  method  of  saving  the  hogs  in 

1  Frank  Andrews  :  "  Cost  and  Method  of  Transporting  Meat 
Animals,"  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Year  Book,  1908. 


366  Pork  Production 

extremely  hot  weather  is  that  of  suspending  from  the  car 
roof  sacks  containing  large  cakes  of  ice,  the  movements  of 
the  car  being  sufficient  to  distribute  the  cold  drip.  At 
some  future  time  the  railroads  may  equip  their  hog-cars 
with  artificial  sprinkling  devices.  Such  an  improvement 
would  result  in  a  tremendous  saving  during  the  hot  months 
of  the  summer.  In  winter  it  is  a  good  plan  to  protect 
the  hogs  from  the  cold  winds  by  nailing  a  few  strips  of 
heavy  building  paper  on  the  inside  of  the  car,  especially 
on  the  windward  side. 

Selling. 

The  responsibility  of  the  commission  firm  to  which  the 
shipment  has  been  consigned  begins  when  the  hogs  arrive 
at  the  market.  The  employees  of  the  stock  yards  com- 
pany and  the  commission  firm's  helpers,  or  yardmen,  will 
see  that  the  hogs  are  unloaded  and  yarded.  After  a  short 
rest,  the  hogs  should  be  watered  and  fed.  A  good  fill  is 
essential  not  only  to  reduce  the  natural  shipping  shrink, 
but  also  because  the  hogs  will  be  more  contented  and 
rest  better  before  the  buyers  begin  to  arrive.  Unusual 
efforts  to  gain  weight  by  an  abnormal  fill  may  reduce  the 
shrink,  but  it  will  also  have  the  effect  of  lowering  the  price 
bid.  On  the  Chicago  market,  the  seller  has  the  privilege 
of  saying  when  the  hogs  shall  be  weighed.  As  a  conse- 
quence of  this  understanding  between  the  buyer  and 
seller,  the  hogs  are  put  over  the  scales  when  in  the  judg- 
ment of  the  shipper  and  salesman  they  have  eaten  and 
drunk  their  fill  and  when  further  delay  would  mean  a 
loss  of  weight.  A  good  hosing  when  the  weather  is  not 
too  cold  will  help  greatly  in  giving  the  hogs  a  better 
appearance.  The  owner  should  be  with  his  hogs  early 
and  until  they  are  sold  and  weighed,  but  the  judgment  of 


Marketing  and  Markets  367 

his  commission  man  should  be  largely  depended  on  in  all 
matters  pertaining  to  their  care  and  sale. 

Costs  of  marketing. 

The  various  items  entering  into  the  expense  of  shipping 
and  selling  a  load  of  hogs  at  one  of  the  large  market 
centers  may  be  grouped  as  follows  :  (1)  cost  of  hauling  to 
local  shipping  point ;  (2)  cost  of  loading  on  to  car,  includ- 
ing bedding  and  feed ;  (3)  freight ;  (4)  shrink ;  (5)  com- 
mission, yardage,  feed,  and  the  like.  These  costs  of  course 
vary  widely,  depending  chiefly  on  the  distance  to  market. 
The  charges  assigned  below  to  each  of  these  items  are 
largely  based  on  investigations  made  in  1909  and  later  by 
the  Office  of  Markets  and  Rural  Organization  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.1 

1.  Cost  of  hauling  in  wagon  (average  dis- 

tance of  5  miles) $1.44  per  wagon  load 

2.  Cost  of  loading  on  cars,  including  cost 

of  bedding  and  feed 2.00  per  car 

3.  Freight  (maximum  rates,  single-deck 

cars,  Central  Association,  Interstate 
Commerce  ruling,  Jan.  1915 ;   mini- 
mum weight  for   single-deck  cars, 
17,000  pounds) 
(a)  distance  100  miles  .     13.22^  to  13.80  £  per  cwt. 


(6)  200    ' 

(c)  "        300    " 

(d)  "        400    " 

(e)  "        500    " 

4.    Shrink  (estimated  average) 


16.96^to  18.11  j£ 
19.84  £  to  20.99^ 
22.71^  to  25.30^ 
25.59^  to  28.17 1 
3  per  cent 


5.  Commission, 

(a)  for  single-deck  car $  8.00  per  car 

(6)  for  double-deck  car 12.00    " 

6.  Yardage 8i  per  head 

7.  Feed  —  corn $1.25  per  bushel 

1  L.  D.  Hall,  F.  M.  Simpson,  and  S.  W.  Doty,  Bull.  113. 


368  Pork  Production 

Assuming  an  average  haul  of  250  miles  and  seventy- 
six  hogs  to  the  car,  the  total  cost  of  marketing  would  be 
$1.60  a  head,  or  approximately  70  cents  a  hundredweight 
for  a  225-pound  hog. 

Shipping  hogs  by  motor  truck. 

The  use  of  the  motor  truck  for  hauling  hogs  is  an 
interesting  recent  development  in  marketing  methods. 
A  large  proportion  of  the  receipts  at  the  smaller  markets 
now  come  in  by  auto,  covering  distances  often  more  than 
100  miles.  During  the  first  six  months  of  1918,  the  num- 
ber of  hogs  arriving  at  the  larger  Omaha  market  numbered 
92,780,  equivalent  to  eight  carloads  for  each  market  day. 
This  was  an  increase  of  180  per  cent  in  the  number 
marketed  by  this  method  over  the  corresponding  period 
of  1917.1 

MARKET   CLASSES 

The  daily  run  of  hogs  at  any  large  market  center,  espe- 
cially in  midsummer,  is  made  up  of  individuals  of  all 
ages  and  weights,  in  all  degrees  of  condition  or  finish, 
feeders  and  fat  hogs,  stags,  old  sows,  boars,  and  pigs,  as 
well  as  prime  well-finished  fat  barrows.  In  handling  such 
a  mixture,  some  system  of  classification  and  grading  is 
obviously  necessary  in  order  to  facilitate  trade  and  the 
accurate  reporting  of  market  prices.  It  is  highly  desir- 
able that  the  producer  be  acquainted  with  this  classifica- 
tion and  the  standard  trade  terms  used  in  connection 
with  it.  A  correct  interpretation  of  market  reports  is, 
in  fact,  impossible  without  it. 

The  following  outline  of  market  classes  is  given  by 

1  Bur.  Markets,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  News  Letter,  July  3,  1918. 


Marketing  and  Markets  369 

Dietrich  l  as  representative  of  the  classifications  made  on 
the  Chicago  market  and  followed  more  or  less  closely  at 
other  centers.  Primarily  the  classification  is  on  the  basis 
of  the  use  to  which  the  hogs  are  put  by  the  packer,  and 
secondarily,  on  a  basis  of  weight : 

CLASSES  SUB-CLASSES 

1.  Prime  heavy  hogs,  350-500  Ib None 

\  Heavy  butchers,  280-350  Ib. 

2.  Butcher  hogs,  180-350  Ib.  <  Medium  butchers,  220-280  Ib. 

[  Light  butchers,  180-220  Ib. 
f  Heavy  packing,  300-500  Ib. 

3.  Packing  hogs,  200-500  Ib.  \  Medium  packing,  250-300  Ib. 

[  Mixed  packing,  200-280  Ib. 
English,  160-220  Ib. 


4. 

Light  light,  125-150  Ib. 

5.  Pigs,  60-125  Ib. 

6.  Roughs 

7.  Stags 

8.  Boars 

Roasting  pigs,  15-30  Ib. 
Feeders 


9.  Miscellaneous 


Governments 
Pen  holders 
Dead  hogs 


The  hogs  included  in  each  one  of  these  subclasses  are 
graded  according  to  their  killing  qualities  as  indicated 
by  their  form,  condition,  and  quality.  The  terms  used 
for  grading  are  prime,  for  the  best,  choice,  good,  common, 
and  inferior.  The  Prime  Heavy  class  contains  only  one 
grade,  prime.  Butcher  hogs  and  Bacon  hogs  are  largely 
of  the  better  grades,  while  Packing  hogs,  Light  Mixed, 
and  Light  Lights  range  from  inferior  to  good  only  in 
grades. 

1  HI.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  97. 
2s 


370  Pork  Production 

Prime  heavy  hogs. 

As  the  name  indicates,  the  hogs  included  in  this  class 
must  be  thick  fat  and  heavier  than  is  common.  In 
addition  they  must  be  smooth  and  well  finished.  The 
class  is  largely  made  up  of  barrows,  but  a  few  "clear" 
sows  (not  seedy  or  shelly)  may  be  included.  They  are 
sometimes  designated  as  "Heavy  Loin  hogs,"  "Fat 
Backs,"  or  merely  "Prime  Heavies."  Owing  to  the 
increased  cost  of  production  and  the  growing  tendency 
for  the  market  to  prefer  the  medium  and  lighter  weights, 
comparatively  few  hogs  are  now  fed  to  these  weights. 
Most  of  the  hogs  in  this  class  weigh  from  350  to  400 
pounds. 

Prime  Heavy  hogs  dress  on  an  average  of  82  to  84  per 
cent  chilled  carcass  to  live  weight,  head  on  and  leaf  lard 
in.1  Chilled  carcasses  weigh  about  2^  per  cent  less  than 
green  or  warm  carcasses.  Hogs  of  this  class  are  chiefly 
used  for  making  heavy  loins,  fat  backs,  dry  salt  bellies, 
skinned  hams,  picnic  hams,  Boston  butts  and  plates. 
With  certain  market  demands,  however,  they  are  cut 
into  the  same  products  as  heavy  packing  hogs. 

Butcher  hogs. 

Hogs  of  this  class  weigh  from  180  to  350  pounds,  being 
redivided  into  the  subclasses,  heavy,  medium,  and  light, 
according  to  their  weight.  In  each  of  these  subclasses 
they  are  designated  prime,  good,  or  common  according  to 
their  killing  qualities  as  indicated  by  their  quality,  condi- 
tion, and  form.  This  class  as  a  rule  is  largely  made  up 
of  barrows  from  six  to  twelve  months  of  age,  although 

1  The  figures  on  dressing  percentage  of  the  different  classes 
of  hogs  given  in  this  section  were  supplied  by  Wilson  &  Co., 
Chicago. 


Marketing  and  Markets 


371 


"clear"  young  sows  which  have  never  produced  pigs  may 
be  included.  Medium  to  light  weight  butcher  hogs  are 
the  most  popular  and  highest  selling  hogs  on  the  market. 
From  25  to  30  per  cent  of  all  hogs  coming  to  the  market 
are  of  this  class. 

As  the  name  suggests,  butcher  hogs  are  largely  depended 
on  to  supply  the  demand  for  fresh  pork.  They  are  usually 
divided  into  the  following  cuts,  —  fresh  loins,  fat  backs, 
Boston  butts,  New  York  shoulders,  short  cut  hams,  clear 
bellies,  and  extra  clears.  According  to  the  records  of 
Wilson  and  Company,  butcher  hogs  kill  out  as  follows  : 

TABLE    CLXXIL  —  AVERAGE    DRESSED    YIELDS    OF    BUTCHER 

HOGS 


LIVE  WEIGHT 

CHILLED  DRESSED 
WEIGHT,  HEAD  ON 
LEAP  LARD  IN 

CHILLED  DRESSED 
WEIGHT,  HEAD  OFF 
LEAF  LARD  OUT 

Heavy  butchers     . 
Medium  butchers 
Light  butchers  . 

280-350  Ib. 
220-280  Ib. 
180-220  Ib. 

80-82% 

78-80% 
77-97% 

72-74% 
70-72% 
69-71% 

Packing  hogs. 

Packing  hogs  may  weigh  all  the  way  from  200  up  to 
500  pounds.  As  a  class  it  is  made  up  principally  of  sows 
which  have  done  service  as  breeders.  Extremely  rough 
barrows,  too  coarse  in  quality  to  go  as  butcher  hogs,  and 
good  stags,  are  also  included  in  this  class.  The  grades 
range  from  inferior  to  good.  About  40  per  cent  of  all  the 
hogs  coming  to  the  Chicago  market  belong  to  this  group. 
Packing  hogs  generally  are  deficient  in  quality  and  too 
heavy  to  be  suitable  for  use  as  fresh  or  smoked  meats. 
As  the  name  indicates,  they  are  ordinarily  packed  as 


372 


Pork  Production 


barreled  pork  or  dry  salt  meats,  the  hams  being  made 
into  "short  cuts"  and  the  shoulders  into  picnic  hams  and 
Boston  butts.  They  are  usually  dressed  with  the  heads 
off  and  the  leaf  lard  out.  The  following  represents  the 
average  dressed  yields : 

TABLE    CLXXIII.  —  AVERAGE   DRESSED    YIELDS    OF   PACKING 

HOGS 


LIVE  WEIGHT 

CHILLED  DRESSED 
WEIGHT,  HEAD  ON 
LEAF  LARD  IN 

CHILLED  DRESSED 
WEIGHT,  HEAD  OFF 
LEAF  LARD  Our 

Heavy  packing  hogs 
Medium  packing 
hogs  
Light  packing  hogs 

300-500  Ib. 

250-300  Ib. 
200-280  Ib. 

81-83% 

79-80% 

77-78% 

73-75% 

71-72% 
69-70% 

Sows  which  are  "piggy"  are  sold  subject  to  a  dockage. 
In  some  markets  it  is  the  custom  to  apply  a  dockage  of 
20  to  40  pounds  regardless  of  any  signs  of  pregnancy.  At 
the  Chicago  market,  however,  sows  are  not  subject  to 
dock  unless  they  are  noticeably  advanced  in  pregnancy. 

Light  hogs. 

This  class  is  made  up  of  young  light  weight  barrows  and 
"clear"  sows,  ranging  in  weight  from  125  pounds,  the 
minimum  for  Light  Lights,  to  220  pounds  for  the  heavier- 
Light  Mixed  or  Bacon  hogs,  and  in  age  from  five  to  eight 
months.  Variations  in  type  and  condition  are  chiefly 
responsible  for  the  three  subclasses,  Bacon  hogs,  Light 
Mixed,  and  Lights.  In  1904  it  was  estimated  that  15 
per  cent  of  all  the  hogs  coming  to  the  Chicago  market 
were  of  this  class.  What  are  commonly  termed  "ship- 
pers" and  "singers"  are  of  this  group. 


Marketing  and  Markets 


373 


The  Bacon  subclass  includes  all  smooth  barrows  and 
"clear"  sows  of  proper  weight  which  approximate  the 
bacon  type.  Since  few  hogs  of  strictly  bacon  type  are 
produced  in  the  corn-belt,  the  class  is  chiefly  made  up  of 
medium  to  thin  hogs  of  lard  type  breeding.  The  better 
hogs  in  this  subclass  go  as  English  bacon,  while  those 
lacking  somewhat  in  type  and  the  proper  condition 
classify  as  United  States  bacon.  Bacon  hogs  are  dressed 
either  for  English  bacon  or  premium  bacon  and  short  or 
long  cut  hams  and  shoulders. 

The  subclass,  Light  Mixed,  contains  a  miscellaneous 
mixture  similar,  except  as  to  weight,  to  the  mixed  packing 
subclass.  Light  Lights  are  similar  to  the  Light  Mixed 
except  as  to  weight.  These  two  subclasses  are  usually 
dressed  with  head  on  and  leaf  lard  in  and  are  principally 
shipped  East  and  sold  as  fresh  meat  by  the  retail  trade. 

Following  is  the  average  dressed  yields  of  light  hogs  as 
reported  by  Wilson  &  Company  : 

TABLE  CLXXIV.  —  AVERAGE  DRESSED  YIELDS  OF  LIGHT  HOGS 


LIVE  WEIGHT 

CHILLED  DRESSED 
WEIGHT,  HEAD  ON 
LEAP  LARD  IN 

CHILLED  DRESSED 
WEIGHT,  HEAD  OFF 
LEAF  LARD  OUT 

Bacon  hogs  . 
Light  mixed  hogs  . 
Extra  light    .     .     . 
Shipper  hogs      .     . 

160-220  Ib. 
150-220  Ib. 
125-150  Ib. 
100-200  Ib. 

76-77% 
75-76% 
74-75% 
72-76% 

68-69% 
67-68% 
66-67% 
64-68% 

Pigs. 

This  class  includes  pigs  which  weigh  60  to  125  pounds. 
With  more  weight  and  finish  they  would  be  butcher  hogs. 
Pigs  are  too  young  to  furnish  meat  which  will  cure  well, 


374  Pork  Production 

and  are  generally  sold  by  the  packer  to  retail  dealers  who 
dispose  of  the  carcasses  in  the  form  of  chops,  boiling 
pieces,  and  other  fresh  cuts,  the  trimmings  being  used  for 
sausage.  It  is  estimated  that  around  10  per  cent  of  all 
the  hogs  coming  to  the  Chicago  market  are  of  this  class. 
With  the  general  use  of  hog  cholera  serum,  many  of  the 
thin  pigs  which  now  come  to  market  find  their  way  im- 
mediately to  the  feeding  plant  of  the  professional  feeder. 
Pigs  dress  out  about  as  follows  : 

TABLE  CLXXV.  —  AVERAGE  DRESSED  YIELD  OF  PIGS 


LIVE  WEIGHT 

CHILLED  DRESSED 
WEIGHT,  HEAD  ON 
LEAP  LARD  IN 

Shipper  pigs   

20-100  Ib. 

62-72  % 

Roughs. 

A  few  hogs  coming  to  market  are  so  inferior  in  form, 
condition,  and  quality  that  they  cannot  be  included  even 
with  the  poorer  grades  of  packing  hogs  and  are  given  the 
descriptive  name,  Roughs.  The  meat  is  very  coarse  in 
quality  and  is  used  by  the  cheaper  trade  for  both  packing 
and  fresh  meat  purposes. 

Stags. 

Stags  are  castrated  boars  and  sell  with  a  dockage  of 
80  pounds.  Due  to  the  dock  and  their  heavy  weight  and 
high  condition,  the  quoted  prices  for  stags  are  sometimes 
as  high  as  for  packing  and  even  butcher  hogs.  A  dockage 
of  80  pounds  on  a  480-pound  stag  is  equivalent  to  a  reduc- 
tion of  If  cents  a  pound  when  stags  are  quoted  at  $10  a 
hundredweight.  If  not  too  staggy  in  appearance,  they 


Marketing  and  Markets  375 

may  sell  in  the  packing  class.    Their  carcasses  are  usually 
disposed  of  in  the  same  manner  as  those  of  packing  hogs. 

Boars. 

Boars  are  sold  without  dockage,  due  to  which,  together 
with  the  coarse  quality  and  strong  flavor  of  some  of  the 
meat,  they  sell  from  $4  to  $5  a  hundred  less  than  the 
better  classes.  The  pork  is  largely  used  for  the  manu- 
facture of  sausage.  Due  to  their  low  selling  price,  it  is 
more  profitable  for  the  farmer  to  castrate  the  boars,  then 
fatten  and  sell  as  stags,  than  it  is  to  sell  them  entire. 

Miscellaneous  classes. 

Roasting  pigs  usually  weigh  from  15  to  30  pounds  and 
are  dressed  with  head  and  feet  on.  During  the  holiday 
season  they  may  sell  at  fancy  prices,  being  handled  very 
much  in  the  same  way  as  poultry.  At  other  seasons  they 
sell  at  a  sacrifice  to  the  grower. 

Although  the  larger  number  of  pigs  now  handled  as 
Feeders  do  not  pass  through  the  stockyard  centers,  never- 
theless the  number  found  here  in  the  summer  and  fall 
has  greatly  increased  during  the  last  few  years.  It  is  a 
class  which  is  beginning  to  assume  considerable  impor- 
tance. 

Governments  are  hogs  which  have  failed  to  pass  the  first 
government  inspection,  which  occurs  before  the  hogs  are 
weighed.  They  show  evidence  of  sickness  or  unsoundness 
which  require  them  to  be  slaughtered  under  special  inspec- 
tion. If  the  carcass  is  found  to  be  unsafe  for  human  food, 
it  is  condemned  and  tanked,  the  products  being  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  grease  and  fertilizers. 

Dead  hogs  which  arrive  at  the  yards  amount  to  about 
.40  per  cent  of  the  receipts.  These  hogs  are  tanked  under 


376  Pork  Production 

the  supervision  of  a  government  inspector  and  the  products 
disposed  of  to  the  manufacturers  of  soap,  grease,  and 
fertilizers. 

SUPPLY  AND  PRICE  FLUCTUATIONS  AND  THEIR  USUAL 
CAUSES 

Like  any  other  commodity  bought  and  sold  on  the  open 
market,  the  price  of  hogs  in  general  is  the  reaction  of  the 
demand  for  pork  on  the  supply  of  hogs.  According  to 
this  law  of  supply  and  demand,  when  the  supply  of  hogs 
increases  and  the  demand  for  pork  remains  constant  the 
price  goes  down ;  and  when  the  supply  decreases  and  the 
demand  is  constant  the  price  rises.  In  the  same  way, 
when  the  supply  of  hogs  is  constant,  an  increase  in  the  de- 
mand for  pork  tends  to  increase  the  price,  while  a  falling 
off  in  the  demand  tends  to  lower  the  price.  These  are 
the  natural  and  inevitable  results  when  the  market  is 
open  and  competition  among  buyers  is  free. 

In  the  following  pages,  a  brief  analysis  is  made  of  the 
principal  factors  which  affected  the  supply  and  price  of 
hogs  on  the  Chicago  market,  during  the  ten-year  period 
from  1905  to  1914  inclusive.  The  Chicago  market  is 
selected  for  this  study  because  it  is  the  largest  and  because 
the  prices  paid  there,  with  freight  rates,  determine  the 
prices  paid  at  other  market  centers.  Its  dominant 
position  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  practically  28  per 
cent  of  all  the  hogs  received  at  the  fourteen  principal 
markets  of  the  country  in  1915  was  credited  to  the 
Chicago  yards.  The  receipts  at  the  different  markets 
were  as  follows  : 1 

1  Chicago  Daily  Farmers'  and  Drovers'  Journal,  Year  Book 
of  Figures,  1917. 


Marketing  and  Markets 


377 


MARKET 


RECEIPTS 


MARKET 


RECEIPTS 


Chicago  .     . 
Omaha    .     . 
St.  Louis 
Kansas  City 
Indianapolis 
St.  Paul  .     . 
East  Buffalo 

7,652,071 
2,642,973 
2,591,768 
2,530,730 
2,435,319 
2,155,201 
1,769,920 

Sioux  City      . 
St.  Joseph 
Milwaukee 
Oklahoma  City 
Wichita      .     . 
Fort  Worth    . 
Denver      .     . 

1,768,818 
1,697,842 
583,071 
484,842 
479,469 
463,879 
343,653 

Monthly  variations  in  the  supply. 

In  Fig.  13  curves  are  plotted  which  show  graphically 
the  actual  supply  of  hogs  by  months  for  each  of  the  ten 
years  and  the  average  monthly  supply  for  the  entire  ten- 
year  period.  These  curves  have  two  rather  significant 
features.  The  curves  for  the  different  years  are  remark- 
ably uniform  in  their  direction,  and  in  practically  every 
year  the  period  of  heavy  runs  falls  in  December  and 
January  and  the  light  runs  in  April  and  September. 
From  September  on  to  January,  the  supply  rises  rapidly 
and  regularly. 

It  will  now  be  considered  why  the  supply  of  hogs  varies 
from  month  to  month  throughout  the  year.  The  uniform- 
ity in  the  direction  of  the  curves  for  the  different  individual 
years  suggests  the  probability  that  these  seasonal  varia- 
tions are  the  result  of  factors  which  are  quite  constant 
from  year  to  year. 

The  heavy  run  of  hogs  which  is  common  in  December, 
January,  and  February  is  due  to  the  fact  that  this  is  the 
normal  time  for  the  marketing  of  pigs  farrowed  the  pre- 
ceding spring.  About  75  per  cent  of  the  hogs  coming  to 
the  Chicago  market  are  spring  or  summer  farrowed.  In 
1916  the  Bureau  of  Crop  Estimates  reported  that  60  per 
cent  of  the  pigs  born  each  year  are  farrowed  in  March, 
April,  and  May.  The  general  practice  is  to  feed  old  corn 


378 


Pork  Production 


Marketing  and  Markets  379 

rather  sparingly  during  the  summer  and  to  depend  largely 
on  the  cheaper  new  corn  for  most  of  the  gains.  As  shown 
in  Fig.  11,  page  215,  the  price  of  corn  is  highest  in  August 
and  September  and  lowest  in  December,  January,  and 
February.  In  addition  to  the  effect  of  cheap  corn,  the 
use  of  pigs  for  hogging-down  corn  and  for  following  cattle 
during  the  winter  tend  to  retard  the  marketing  of  the 
previous  spring  crop. 

The  supply  from  January  to  April  rapidly  and  quite 
regularly  diminishes  under  normal  conditions.  This  is 
the  natural  result  of  the  heavy  liquidations  taking  place 
in  the  preceding  months.  The  low  run  during  April  is 
the  logical  consequence  of  the  effort  to  reduce  stock  be- 
fore the  assessor  arrives,  the  readjustments  required  on 
rented  farms  at  moving  time,  and  the  desire  to  sell  all 
marketable  stock  before  the  rush  of  spring  work  com- 
mences. 

Fall  pigs  are  normally  ready  for  market  in  May  and 
June  and  hence  the  rise  in  the  supply  during  these  months. 
This  is  the  time  also  when  the  culls  from  the  breeding 
herd  begin  to  arrive  following  a  brief  period  of  fattening. 
The  risk  of  loss  from  shipping  in  hot  weather  and  the  in- 
creasing scarcity  and  price  of  corn  are  also  important 
factors  resulting  in  a  larger  supply  during  the  early  summer 
and  a  consequent  diminishing  supply  from  June  to  Septem- 
ber. 

A  study  of  the  individual  supply  curves  shows  few  varia- 
tions from  the  average.  Such  differences  which  are  to  be 
noted  are  usually  the  result  of  special  conditions  or  influ- 
ences which  tend  to  effect  a  change  of  plan  from  the  regu- 
lar time  of  marketing.  The  following  are  some  of  the  more 
common  of  these  influences :  a  partial  failure  of  the  corn 
crop  over  a  considerable  area  of  the  corn-belt ;  the  present 


380  Pork  Production 

and  prospective  price  of  corn  and  hogs ;  cholera  epidemics ; 
difficulty  of  obtaining  cars  for  shipments ;  unusual  weather 
conditions ;  strikes  and  labor  troubles  at  the  large  indus- 
trial centers. 

From  the  standpoint  of  the  packers,  a  more  uniform 
supply  of  hogs  from  month  to  month  throughout  the  year 
would  make  possible  greater  efficiency  and  economy  in 
handling  the  pork  products.  Their  labor  would  be  more 
regularly  employed,  the  capacity  of  their  plants  would 
be  greatly  increased,  and  more  reliable  service  by  the 
railroads  in  distributing  their  products  would  be  assured. 
Since  the  perfection  of  refrigeration,  in  1880,  the  packers 
are  in  position  to  handle  as  many  hogs  in  summer  as  in 
winter. 

In  the  interests  of  the  farmer,  a  more  uniform  supply 
of  hogs  on  the  market  throughout  the  year  would  give  the 
packers  and  other  buying  agents  less  power  over  the 
market.  When  the  large  runs  accumulate  in  December 
and  January,  the  opportunity  to  break  the  market  is  a 
chance  which  the  buyers  do  not  neglect.  The  result  is 
that  the  bulk  of  the  packers'  supplies  are  purchased  when 
the  runs  are  heaviest  and  the  prices  lowest.  Since  supplies 
during  the  summer  are  relatively  light,  the  buyer  pays 
high  prices  for  hogs  only  when  his  purchases  are  fewest. 
These  are  advantages  which  the  packers  would  not  enjoy 
if  the  monthly  runs  were  more  uniform. 

The  conditions  on  the  farms  where  the  hogs  are  produced 
and  raised  for  market  do  not  promise,  however,  any  radical 
change  in  time  of  marketing.  There  are  a  few  tendencies 
however,  which  operate  in  that  direction.  A  larger  number 
of  February  and  March  pigs  are  being  produced  now  than 
formerly ;  the  use  of  the  self-feeder  in  growing  and  fatten- 
ing market  pigs  is  becoming  more  general ;  there  is  an  in- 


Marketing  and  Markets  381 

creasing  appreciation  of  the  value  of  forage  crops;  and 
the  number  of  fall  pigs  produced  is  increasing.  The 
effect  of  these  influences  will  tend  to  equalize  somewhat  the 
summer  and  winter  receipts. 

Variations  in  the  daily  supply. 

A  prominent  feature  at  the  large  central  markets  is  the 
tendency  for  the  week's  shipments  to  accumulate  and  fall 
on  Mondays  and  Wednesdays.  In  1915  the  hogs  arriving 
at  the  Chicago  yards  were  distributed  throughout  the  week 
as  follows  : *  on  Mondays,  24  per  cent ;  on  Tuesdays,  14 ; 
on  Wednesdays,  23;  on  Thursdays,  19;  on  Fridays,  13; 
and  on  Saturdays,  4.  In  the  case  of  cattle,  there  was 
even  a  greater  tendency  for  congestion  on  Mondays  and 
Wednesdays. 

It  is  generally  conceded  by  both  buyers  and  commission 
men  that  the  market  would  be  less  erratic  if  shipments 
were  more  uniformly  distributed  throughout  the  first  five 
working  days  of  the  week,  and  that  there  would  be  a  large 
saving  from  increased  efficiency  in  handling  the  stock 
at  the  yards  and  packing  plants.  From  the  shipper's 
viewpoint,  there  is  no  question  but  that  a  more  regular 
supply  would  be  advantageous.  Sharp  breaks  in  the  mar- 
ket, the  evil  result  of  glutted  yards,  would  be  less  frequent 
and  a  more  stable  market  result. 

The  custom  of  loading  for  the  Monday  and  Wednesday 
markets  seems  to  have  been  due  to  the  failure  of  the  rail- 
roads to  provide  through  service  for  large  shipments  on 
other  days.  The  packer  suffered  from  the  same  restric- 
tions in  getting  the  products  to  "his  numerous  distributing 
centers  and  to  seaboard  ports.  To  correct  the  evils  grow- 

1  Bur.  Crop  Estimates,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Monthly  Crop  Rpt., 
Vol.  2,  1916. 


382 


Pork  Production 


ing  out  of  this  custom,  the  Bureau  of  Markets  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  on  the  au- 
thority granted  by  Congress,  inaugurated  for  the  war 
period  the  zone  system  of  loading  for  stock  consigned  to 
the  Chicago  market.  This  regulation  went  into  effect 
December  10,  1917.  The  effect  of  this  control  on  the 
distribution  of  receipts  of  hogs  and  cattle  throughout  the 
week  is  indicated  by  the  figures  in  Table  CLXXVI. 

TABL3    CLXXVI.  —  AVERAGE  PERCENTAGE    DISTRIBUTION  OP 
WEEKLY  RECEIPTS,  MARCH  11  TO  JUNE  15,  1918 


YEAR 

MON. 

TUES. 

WED. 

THURS. 

FRI. 

SAT. 

Cattle 

1917 

35.2 

10.4 

37.0 

11.6 

4.3 

1.5 

1918 

29.4 

24.3 

11.9 

21.9 

9.1 

3.4 

Hogs 

1917 

31.3 

10.6 

21.6 

16.0 

13.1 

7.4 

1918 

29.1 

16.1 

12.6 

18.7 

16.1 

7.4 

That  the  better  distribution  of  receipts  did  not  in  the 
earlier  stages  of  this  regulation  bring  about  a  more  stable 
market  was  no  doubt  due  to  the  very  abnormal  conditions 
created  by  the  war,  and  more  particularly  to  the  irregu- 
larity with  which  the  buying  orders  for  the  Government 
and  Allies  were  put  into  the  hands  of  the  packers. 

Variations  in  the  yearly  supply. 

Reference  to  Fig.  17  will  show  the  variations  in  the  re- 
ceipts of  hogs  on  the  Chicago  market  which  are  common 
from  year  to  year.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  years  of  heavy 
supply  tend  both  to  be  preceded  and  followed  by  years  of 
light  supply.  It  would  appear  that  periods  of  heavy  and 
light  production  are  separated  by  intervals  of  two  to  three 


Marketing  and  Markete  383 

years ;    and  that  years  of  high  production  tend  to  succeed 
one  another  every  four  to  five  years. 

The  chief  cause  of  these  yearly  fluctuations  is,  no  doubt, 
the  relation  between  the  price  of  corn  and  that  of  hogs. 
In  other  words,  the  chief  stimulant  to  increased  production 
is  to  be  found  in  the  profits  derived  by  the  producer  the 
preceding  year.  Increased  production  tends  to  follow 
the  year  when  the  price  of  hogs  is  high  compared  with  the 
price  of  corn.  In  1908  the  price  of  corn  was  high  and  the 
price  of  hogs  low.  The  effect  on  production  is  shown  by  a 
reduction  of  a  million  and  a  half  head  in  the  receipts  in  1909, 
followed  by  another  million  in  1910.  In  1910  hogs  were 
high  and  corn  relatively  cheap.  The  result  was  a  greatly 
increased  production  in  1911.  According  to  the  report 
of  the  commission  appointed  by  the  Food  Administration 
to  investigate  the  cost  of  producing  hogs,1  the  average 
ratio  between  the  price  of  hogs  a  hundredweight  and  the 
price  of  corn  a  bushel  was  11.67  for  the  ten-year  period 
from  1907  to  1916  inclusive.2  During  this  period,  in  other 
words,  100  pounds  of  live  hogs  sold  for  11.67  times  as  much 
as  a  bushel  of  No.  2  corn  on  the  Chicago  market.  The 
recommendations  of  this  committee  were  based  on  the 
ascertained  principle  that  when  a  ratio  less  than  11.67 
exists  between  the  price  of  hogs  and  that  of  the  corn 
which  was  fed  into  them,  production  is  discouraged 
and  the  supply  reduced;  and  when  a  wider  ratio  than 
11.67  exists,  production  is  stimulated  and  the  supply  of 
hogs  increases. 


1  John  M.  Eward,  Lawrence  P.  Funk,  N.  H.  Gentry,  W.  A. 
Williams,  J.  H.  Skinner,  Tait  Butler,  E.  W.  Burdie. 

2  This  method  of  determining  cost  of  production  was  sug- 
gested by  the  previous  studies  of  "Wallaces'  Farmer"  of  Des 
Moines,  Iowa, 


384  Pork  Production 

Weight  as  a  factor  in  supply. 

The  variations  in  the  average  weight  of  hogs  by  months 
throughout  the  year  for  the  twelve-year  period  from  1905 
to  1916  inclusive  are  seen  in  Fig.  14.  From  January  to 
August  the  weight  quite  regularly  increases,  and  from 
August  to  November  there  is  a  rapid  decline  in  weight. 
During  November  and  December  the  weights  are  light 
because  the  receipts  are  largely  made  up  of  spring  pigs, 


250, 

*L 

-I*1 

r 

/ 

/ 

^ 

\ 

t 

0 
^220 

•J 

O 
<2/0 
K 
g 
**ZOC 

J 

X 

x^ 

\ 

\ 

+^ 

s 

\ 

^•^••i 

dAM.  Fes  MAR  APR  A/AV  Jt/*e  Juw.  AUG.  «5epr  OCT.  No*  DEC. 

FIG.  14. 


Average  monthly  variations  in  the  weight  of  hogs  on  the 
Chicago  market  from  1905  to  1916. 


many  of  which  are  not  finished.  From  January  on  the 
weight  increases  as  the  age  of  the  pigs  marketed  increases. 
June  weights,  on  the  average,  are  no  heavier  than  May 
weights,  probably  because  of  a  large  proportion  of  fall 
pigs.  The  extra  heavy  weights  during  the  late  summer 
and  early  fall  are  largely  due  to  the  marketing  of  old  sows 
and  stags  and  well-finished  fall  pigs.  The  rapid  decline 
in  weight  during  the  fall  is  largely  to  be  explained  by  the 


Marketing  and  Markets 


385 


light  weight  of  the  first  marketed  spring  pigs,  many  of 
which  havebeen  rushed  to  market  because  of  cholera  scares. 
As  it  happens,  the  average  weight  of  the  hogs  marketed 
is  heaviest  in  those  months  when  the  receipts  are  lightest. 
The  variations  in  weight,  therefore,  tend  to  equalize  the 
supply  of  hogs  during  the  different  months  of  the  year. 

As  shown  in  Fig.  15,  the  average  weight  of  market  hogs 
varies  widely  from  year  to  year.     The  principal  factor 


o 

<Q  240 
X 

/ 

\ 

t 

to 
Szzc 

/ 

/ 

\ 

t 

i 

\ 

^2* 

ti 
^ZfO 

\ 

^ 

s 

o: 

g 

1305     'O6      '07     '06      '09      >O     >/       'lZ      'A3     '/4     '/5  .  '/6 

FIG.  15.  —  Average  annual  weight  of  hogs  on  the  Chicago  market  from 
1905  to  1916. 

responsible  for  this  is  the  relation  which  exists  between  the 
price  of  corn  and  that  of  hogs.  When  hogs  are  high  and 
corn  relatively  cheap,  every  pig  in  the  corn-belt  will  be 
held  and  fed  to  full  market  weight ;  and  on  the  other  hand, 
when  hogs  are  cheap  and  corn  high  and  rising,  the  natural 
result  is  that  the  pigs  are  sent  to  market  in  an  unfinished 
condition  and  the  corn  sold  for  cash.  The  record  annual 
weight  of  hogs  marketed  in  1910  is  a  striking  illustration 
2c 


386  Pork  Production 

of  this  principle.  High  absolute  prices  for  corn  seem  to 
cause  the  marketing  of  unfinished  pigs,  even  though  the 
price  of  hogs  for  the  time  being  is  correspondingly  high. 
From  year  to  year,  weights  average  lowest  in  those  years 
when  the  receipts  are  highest.  The  factor  of  weight,  con- 
sequently, tends  to  equalize  the  supply  from  year  to  year, 
as  it  does  from  month  to  month. 

Seasonal  variations  in  price. 

The  average  prices  paid  for  light  and  heavy  hogs  by 
months  on  the  Chicago  market  during  the  ten-year  period 
from  1905  to  1914  inclusive,  are  shown  graphically  in 
Fig.  16.  The  average  supply  curve  is  also  given  for  pur- 
poses of  comparison.  According  to  these  curves  for  light 
and  heavy  hogs,  hogs  sell  highest  in  September  and  April 
and  lowest  in  December  and  January.  Winter  prices  are 
relatively  low  and  summer  prices  high.  The  more  im- 
portant of  the  causes  responsible  for  these  typical  price 
variations  throughout  the  year  will  now  be  considered. 

That  an  intimate  relationship  exists  between  the  price 
of  hogs  in  any  month  and  the  supply,  is  clearly  apparent 
on  a  comparison  of  the  price  and  supply  curves  in  Fig.  16. 
The  price  of  hogs  is  highest,  on  the  average,  in  those 
months  when  the  average  supply  is  lowest ;  and  when  the 
supply  is  heaviest,  the  price  is  lowest.  Exceptions  to 
this  rule  are  occasionally  to  be  found,  of  course,  in  indi- 
vidual months,  notably,  for  example,  during  the  closing 
months  of  1909  and  the  early  months  of  1911.  The  ex- 
ceptions, however,  are  temporary  and  more  apparent  than 
real.  In  the  long  run,  a  deficiency  in  the  supply  of  live 
hogs  is  bound  to  increase  prices,  while  a  surplus  of  live 
hogs  is  certain  to  reduce  them. 

In  the  summer  and  early  fall,  heavy  weight  hogs  pre- 


Marketing  and  Markets 


387 


dominate  on  the  market,  particularly  during  July,  August 
and  September ;  and  in  the  winter  light  weights  predomi- 
nate. In  addition,  the  packer's  demand  is  for  heavy  hogs 
in  winter  and  for  light  hogs  in  summer.  The  effect  of 
both  supply  and  demand,  therefore,  is  to  cause  light  hogs 


THOUSANDS. 


LIGHT    Moss 
Hc/w 


'6.** 
JAN.     Fes.     MAR.     APR.    MAY.     JUNE.  .«Ji/z.v.     AUG. 


***« 


OCT.    Nov.      DEC. 


FIG.  16.  —  Curves  showing  the  average  monthly  price  of  light  and  heavy 
hogs  on  the  Chicago  market  from  1905  to  1914. 

to  sell  at  a  premium  during  the  summer,  and  heavy  hogs 
at  a  premium  in  the  winter. 

The  supply  of  hogs  on  the  market  for  any  month,  how- 
ever, is  not  the  only  factor  influencing  the  price :  the  de- 
mand for  pork  is  also  to  be  reckoned  with.  As  a  general 
proposition,  it  may  be  said  that  consumption  of  pork  is 
heavier  in  winter  than  in  summer.  When  the  general 
economic  conditions  are  constant  throughout  the  year, 
and  the  price  of  pork  normal,  variations  in  demand  and 


388  Pork  Production 

consumption  in  the  different  months  are  largely  the  result 
of  temperature.  The  prosperity  of  the  southern  farmer, 
or  the  condition  of  the  cotton  crop,  is  an  important  factor 
influencing  the  demand  for  pork  during  the  summer.  The 
effect  of  general  economic  conditions,  and  the  price  of 
pork,  is  to  influence  the  demand,  but  quite  independent 
of  any  given  season. 

Prices  of  dressed  hogs,  and  wholesale  and  retail  cuts, 
seem  to  follow  quite  closely  the  price-  of  hogs.  As  a  rule, 
a  rise  or  fall  in  the  price  of  live  hogs  is  followed  in  one  or 
two  months  by  a  rise  or  fall  in  the  price  of  fresh  pork  cuts. 
Prices  of  cured  products,  smoked  hams  and  bacon,  and 
the  products  on  which  futures  are  bought  and  sold  on  the 
board  of  trade,  short  ribs,  mess  pork,  and  lard,  follow  the 
general  trend  of  live  hog  prices,  but  are  less  sensitive  to 
the  seasonal  fluctuations  than  are  the  fresh  cuts.1 

Yearly  variations  in  price. 

In  Fig.  17  the  average  annual  price  of  hogs  on  the 
Chicago  market  is  shown  by  a  plotted  curve  for  the  years 
from  1905  to  1916  inclusive.  The  supply  curve  for  the 
same  period  of  time  is  also  shown.  At  the  bottom  of  the 
figure  the  average  price  of  No.  2  cash  corn  on  the  Chicago 
market  is  indicated  for  each  year. 

Like  the  supply,  the  price  of  hogs  is  subject  to  wide 
fluctuations  from  year  to  year.  Under  normal  conditions, 
years  of  high  prices  tend  to  be  preceded  and  followed  by 
years  of  low  prices. 

That  variation  in  supply  is  the  chief  and  fundamental 
factor  which  determines  the  average  price  of  hogs  from 

1  L.  D.  Hall,  F.  M.  Simpson,  and  S.  W.  Doty  :  "Methods  and 
Cost  of  Marketing  Livestock  and  Meats,"  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr., 
Rpt.  113. 


Marketing  and  Markets 


389 


year  to  year  seems  to  be  conclusively  shown  by  these 
curves.  From  1905  to  1911,  the  direction  of  the  supply 
and  price  curves  is  in  exact  opposition.  In  1916  a  marked 
increase  in  both  receipts  and  price  is  noted,  due  to  the 
greatly  increased  demand  occasioned  by  war. 

The  general  demand  for  pork  products  exerts  an  im- 
portant influence  on  the  price  of  hogs  from  year  to  year. 


MILLIONS.                                                                                                                                  PER  CWT. 

SUPPLY  CURVC  " 

^ 

g    ° 

I 

0 

r 

/ 

\ 

^_  _,^ 

o 

I 

fc  fl 

J 

t 

\ 

/ 

*- 

'&  t 

SUPPJ.Y  < 
si  C 

X 

>•               !• 

/ 

\ 

t 

\ 

\ 
\ 

-T^ 

^ 

\ 

V 

/ 

0 

y 

^ 

^ 

> 

/ 

1     rf 

1 

^*<< 

» 

\ 

lU 
-      CD 

6   <, 

5 

/ 

^^ 

< 

\ 

/ 

K 

r 

f 

z 

( 

*    ^ 

Y2*R.  'OS       '06       *O7       '08        tO        VO         '//         '/2        '/3        '/4        '/5         */6 

No.Z     SOt    4&i     <53*     6Q*      67*      ^Q*     53*      63*      62^      7O*       734       Q34 

FIG.  17.  —  Curves  showing  the  average  annual  price  and  supply  of  hogs 
on  the  Chicago  market  from  1905  to  1916. 

The  effect  of  the  rapid  increase  in  the  population  of  the 
country  has  been  to  reduce  the  per  capita  number  of  swine. 
For  many  years  there  has  been  a  steady  and  persistent 
decline  in  the  number  of  swine  per  capita  of  the  popula- 
tion. In  1840  it  was  1.54  hogs  per  capita,  and  in  1910,  .75. 
The  effect  of  this  growing  shortage  is  in  the  direction  of 
higher  prices. 


300  Pork  Production 

The  most  important  factor  in  the  demand  for  any  year 
is  probably  to  be  found  in  the  general  economic  conditions 
which  prevail  throughout  the  country.  More  pork  is 
eaten  when  business  is  good,  when  labor  is  regularly  em- 
ployed and  well  paid,  than  when  times  are  hard  and  labor 
employment  is  uncertain  and  wages  low.  Another  fact 
which  exerts  an  important  influence  on  demands  is  that 
more  pork  is  eaten  when  the  price  is  relatively  low  than 
when  it  is  high.  The  maximum  price  of  pork  is  ordinarily 
limited  just  below  the  point  where  the  average  consumer 
cannot  afford  to  eat  it. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

JUDGING 

A  GOOD  judge  of  hogs  possesses  the  most  valuable  asset 
necessary  for  success  as  a  breeder.  The  breeder  or  feeder 
who  is  not  a  reliable  judge  cannot  succeed  in  the  hog  busi- 
ness regardless  of  the  advantages  he  may  enjoy  in  equip- 
ment, financial  backing,  or  other  favorable  conditions. 
Good  judges,  however,  are  not  born  as  such,  and  the  in- 
dividual must  have  training  and  experience  before  he  is 
competent. 

An  important  part  of  the  training  necessary  consists 
in  gaining  an  appreciation  of  the  essential  duties  or  func- 
tions which  the  different  classes  of  hogs  have  to  perform. 
The  best  finished  fat  barrow,  for  example,  is  the  one  which 
not  only  has  been  a  good  feeder,  but  which  will  dress  out 
the  most  profitably  as  a  killer.  A  knowledge  of  the 
butcher's  requirements  is  necessary  as  a  foundation  for 
the  formation  of  correct  ideas  of  the  fat  or  bacon  hog 
type.  For  the  same  reason,  the  ideal  of  brood  sow  type 
should  be  based  on  an  experienced  understanding  of  the 
work  she  has  to  do.  Any  conception  of  type  which  is  not 
consistent  with  reliable  breeding  performance  is  fatal  to 
the  future  of  the  herd  or  breed.  An  appreciation  of  this 
fundamental  principle  is  important,  for  it  will  promote 
stability  of  judgment  and  reasonable  independence  towards 
temporary  fads  and  the  demands  for  extremes  in  type. 

391 


392  Pork  Production 


TYPES   OF  HOGS 

With  respect  to  type,  all  hogs  are  roughly  divided  into 
two  classes,  known  respectively  as  the  lard  type  and  the 
bacon  type.  The  efforts  of  the  breeder  to  furnish  the 
finest  bacon  have  resulted  in  the  evolution  of  the  bacon 
hog ;  while  the  efforts  of  the  breeder  to  produce  a  profit- 
able feeding  hog  possessing  the  maximum  of  lard-produc- 
ing tendencies  have  resulted  in  the  modern  lard  hog.  Dif- 
ferences between  these  two  primary  types  are  due,  there- 
fore, to  the  essential  variation  in  the  market  demands 
which  were  responsible  for  their  creation. 

The  lard  type  of  hog  has  been  developed  to  his  highest 
degree  of  perfection  in  the  corn-belt,  because  corn  is  essen- 
tially a  fat  or  lard-producing  food.  But  it  is  not  correct 
to  say  that  the  modern  lard  type  is  the  sole  result  of  corn 
feeding ;  the  development  of  this  type  has  been  brought 
about  by  the  selection  for  breeding  purposes  of  those  indi- 
viduals which  responded  favorably  to  corn-belt  conditions. 
It  is  a  matter  of  good  fortune  that  the  market  should 
prefer  the  type  of  hog  which  the  farmers  of  the  corn-belt 
are  best  qualified  by  natural  advantages  to  produce. 

The  bacon  type  of  hog,  on  the  other  hand,  has  found  its 
highest  development  in  an  environment  which  supplies 
a  variety  of  feeds  less  fattening  in  their  qualities  than  corn. 
In  Canada,  where  the  bacon  type  is  generally  produced, 
peas,  barley,  and  oats  are  the  grains  on  which  chief  reliance 
is  placed.  With  these  advantages  and  the  continued  se- 
lection for  the  type  which  produces  high-grade  British 
bacon,  the  Canadian  farmer  has  developed  and  main- 
tained a  hog  conforming  to  the  standard  of  the  bacon 
type. 


Judging 


393 


JUDGING   THE  FINISHED   FAT  BARROW  OF  THE  LARD  TYPE 

Market  requirements. 

On  the  daily  market,  highest  prices  are  paid  for  the 
kind  of  hog  which  the  daily  records  of  the  buyers  have 
shown  to  be  the  best  killers.  From  the  butcher  or  packer's 
point  of  view,  a  good  killer  is  one  which  furnishes  a  carcass 
yielding  a  high  percentage  of  dressed  to  live  weight,  of 
suitable  weight  and  condition,  correct  in  shape,  and  pos- 
sessing fine  quality  of  fat  and  lean. 

High  dressing  percentage  is  of  special  importance  be- 
cause of  the  influence  it  exerts  on  the  price  which  the 
buyer  can  afford  to  pay  for  the  live  hog.  The  average 
market  hog  dresses  about  74  per  cent  of  chilled  carcass  to 
live  weight,  while  the  average  grade  of  the  medium-weight 
butcher  hogs  will  dress  about  78  per  cent.  The  first  prize 
carcasses  at  the  last  four  International  Livestock  Exposi- 
tions (1913,  '16,  '17,  and  '18)  represented  an  average  of 
85  per  cent  of  carcass  to  live  weight,  the  highest  being  92 
and  the  lowest  80.85  per  cent. 

The  importance  of  dressing  percentage  as  a  factor  in 
determining  selling  price  is  brought  out  by  the  figures 
presented  in  Table  CLXXVII.  These  calculations  were 
made  on  the  basis  of  a  10-cent  market  and  a  live  weight 
of  225  pounds.  The  carcasses  from  the  low  dressing  hogs 
were  assumed  to  have  the  same  value  a  pound  as  the 
heavier  dressing  carcasses. 

TABLE  CLXXVII.  —  THE    RELATION   OF  DRESSING  PERCENT- 
AGE TO  SELLING  VALUE  ON  FOOT 


Dressing  percentage   .     . 

70 

75 

80 

85 

Relative  value  per  pound 

on  foot       

Wi 

10.71^ 

11.43  ?f 

12.14«f 

394  Pork  Production 

These  figures  mean  that  if  hogs  weighing  an  average  of 
225  pounds  and  dressing  70  per  cent  are  worth  10  cents 
a  pound,  hogs  of  the  same  weight  dressing  75  per  cent  are 
worth  10.71  cents  a  pound,  and  so  on.  That  is  to  say,  for 
every  increase  of  1  per  cent  in  dressing  yield,  the  selling 
value  on  foot  is  enhanced  between  14  and  15  cents  a  hun- 
dredweight. 

In  actual  practice,  such  wide  variations  in  dressing  per- 
centage as  given  in  this  table  are  not  common  with  hogs 
of  the  same  weight.  Variations  in  dressed  weights  are 
due  chiefly  to  differences  in  weight,  condition,  and  fill. 
The  supply  and  demand  for  lard  on  the  one  hand,  and  for 
fresh  pork  cuts  on  the  other,  are  largely  responsible  for 
the  failure  of  the  selling  price  of  live  hogs  always  to  har- 
monize with  the  dressing  percentage. 

The  weight,  condition,  shape,  and  quality  of  the  carcass 
also  bear  an  intimate  relationship  to  the  price  which  the 
buyer  can  afford  to  pay  for  the  hog  on  foot.  With  respect 
to  weight,  the  carcasses  in  greatest  demand  are  furnished 
by  butcher  hogs  weighing  from  200  to  260  pounds  alive.1 
The  most  profitable  cutting  carcasses  are  broad,  thick,  and 
of  medium  length,  symmetrical  in  shape,  even  in  their 
lines,  and  uniform  in  width  and  thickness.  There  should 
be  no  tendency  towards  stagginess,  shown  by  coarse  and 
extra  heavy  shoulders,  the  loin  should  not  be  weak  nor 
the  hams  light.  The  carcass  as  a  whole  should  present  a 
plump  smooth  surface,  the  skin  being  thin  and  free  from 
creases,  blotches,  or  bruises.  The  fat  covering  should 
be  thick  and  of  uniform  depth.  After  chilling  the  fat 
should  be  firm  and  ivory  white,  rather  than  yellow, 
stringy,  or  oily.  The  lean  meat  should  be  bright  and  fine- 

1  B,  R.  Gentry,  general  hog  buyer,  Armour  &  Co. 


Judging  395 

grained,  rather  than  dark  and  coarse.1  These  desirable 
features  mean  that  the  carcass  will  yield  the  high-priced 
market  cuts  with  a  minimum  of  trimming ;  that  the 
shrinkage  in  curing  the  hams  and  bacon  will  be  small ; 
and  that  the  flavor,  quality,  and  general  attractiveness  of 
the  cuts,  both  cured  and  fresh,  will  be  of  the  best  —  all 
of  which  mean  a  caracass  whose  products  command  the 
highest  prices  in  the  open  market. 

A  compilation  by  E.  R.  Gentry  2  of  the  killing  records 
of  medium-weight  butcher  hogs  dressed  by  Armour  and 
Company  gives  the  following  average  percentages  of  the 
different  cuts  and  products : 

r<TTm  PER  CENT  OP 

LIVE  WEIGHT 

Hams 12.50 

Shoulders 10.50 

Belly  bacon 11.50 

Fat  backs 9.95 

Loins 9.75 

Prime  steam  lard 12.50 

Tenderloins,  spareribs,  tails,  snouts,  etc. .     .  6.50 

Total  dressed  carcass 73.20 

Leaf  fat 2.80 

Casings,  heart,  liver,  cheek  meat,  etc.      .     .  12.00 

Total  edible  products 88.00 

Moisture  and  fecal  matter 12.00 

Total 100.00 

The  score-card. 

The  score-card  represents  the  efforts  of  the  live-stock 
judge  to  describe  in  detail  the  perfect  animal.  In  addi- 
tion, the  effort  is  made  to  assign  each  detail  a  value  which 
correctly  indicates  its  importance  when  considered  in  rela- 
tion to  the  whole.  The  arrangement  of  the  score-card  is 

1  L.  D.  Hall,  111.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  147. 

2  Progressive  Hog  Raising,  Armour  &  Co. 


396 


Pork  Production 


such  that  a  systematic  and  detailed  examination  of  the 
animal  is  facilitated.  Blank  spaces  are  usually  provided 
in  which  the  scorer  may  record  his  ratings  for  the  different 
"points"  or  details. 

The  score-card  method  of  selecting  animals  or  of  judging 
groups  or  classes  is  not  a  practical  one,  owing  chiefly  to 
the  time  required.  Its  general  use  is  impracticable  also 
because  few  are  sufficiently  expert  in  its  use  to  do  con- 
sistently accurate  work  with  it.  But  the  fundamental 
reason  why  the  score-card  result  must  always  be  subject 
to  review  is  because  a  given  "point"  may  be  so  faulty 
that  its  importance  in  relation  to  the  individual  as  a  whole 
is  enhanced  far  beyond  the  number  of  credit  points  assigned 
it  by  the  score-card.  As  an  expression  of  a  standard  of 
perfection  and  as  a  means  of  preliminary  study,  however, 
the  score-card  has  proved  itself  of  great  value  in  teaching 
the  rudiments  of  live-stock  judging  to  the  beginner. 

SCORE-CARD  FOR  MARKET  HOGS  OF  THE  LARD  TYPE 


SCALE  OP  POINTS 

STANDARD 

STUDENT'S 
SCORE 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE  —  30  per  cent 

1.   Weight  —  score  according  to  age       .     . 
2.    Form  —  deep,   broad,   medium  length, 
smooth,       compact,       symmetrical  ; 
standing  squarely  on  mediumly  short 

4 
10 

3.   Condition  —  fat,  well  finished;      deep, 
even,  firm  yet  mellow  covering  ;    free 
from  rolls  or  flabbiness     
4.    Quality  —  hair  smooth  and  fine  ;    bone 
of  medium  size,   clean,  and  strong; 
smooth,  refined  general  appearance; 
free  from  creases  and  wrinkles  .     .     . 

10 
6 

Judging 


397 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 


6. 


7. 


HEAD  AND  NECK  —  8  per  cent 
5.    Snout  —  medium  length,  not  coarse 
Eyes  —  able  to  see  ;     prominent,  clear, 
not  obscured  by  fat      ...... 

Face  —  short  and  clean  ;  cheeks  full 

8.  Ears  —  fine,  medium  size,  attached  neatly 

9.  Jowl  —  full,     firm,     neat,     free     from 

wrinkles     .......... 

10.  Neck  —  short,  full,  smooth  to  shoulder  . 

FOREQUARTERS  —  12  per  cent 

11.  Shoulders  —  broad,  deep,  smooth,  com- 

pact on.  top     ......... 

12.  Breast  —  full,  smooth,  neat      ....  2 

13.  Legs  —  straight,   short,    strong  ;      bone 

clean,  hard  ;     pasterns  short,  strong 
upright  ;  feet  medium  size    ....          2 

BODY  —  33  per  cent 

14.  Chest  —  deep,  wide,  full  ;  large  girth     .  4 

15.  Sides  —  medium  length,  deep,  straight, 

smooth;     free     from     creases     and 
wrinkles     .     .     .     .     ......  8 

16.  Back  —  broad,      uniform      in      width, 

strongly  arched;     thickly  and  evenly 
covered      .......... 

17.  Loin  —  wide,  thick,  strong  ;  same  width 

as  back       ..........  9 

18.  Belly  and  Underline  —  straight,  smooth, 

firm,  flanks  low  and  full  .....          6 

HINDQUARTERS  —  17  per  cent 

19.  Rump  —  long,  wide,  evenly  fleshed  ;  not 

steep      ...........          3 

20.  Hams  —  long,  thick,  wide,  deep,  plump, 

firm  ;  not  baggy       .......  9 

21.  Legs  —  straight,    short,    strong;      bone 

clean,  hard  ;     pasterns  short,  strong, 

_  upright  ;  feet  medium  size    .     .     .     .  2 

Total  100 


STANDARD 


STUDENT'S 
SCORE 


Pork  Production 


It  will  be  noted  that  this  score-card  is  divided  into  two 
parts.  In  the  first  part,  under  general  appearance,  the 
essential  points  or  features  are  taken  up  in  a  general  way, 
while  in  the  remaining  sections  the  details  are  each  given 
separate  consideration. 

Weight  (4  per  cent) .  —  In  scoring  weight,  it  is  customary 
to  consider  both  the  butcher's  and  feeder's  requirements. 
From  the  butcher's  or  packer's  standpoint,  the  most  de- 
sirable market  weights  range  from  200  to  275  pounds. 
From  the  standpoint  of  the  feeder,  the  pig  which  has  made 
the  most  rapid  gains  and  is  heaviest  for  his  age  is  the  most 
profitable,  other  things  being  equal.  The  following 
weights  for  fat  barrows  may  be  regarded  as  about  ideal 
from  the  producer's  point  of  view  under  conditions  of  in- 
tensive feeding  :  at  six  months,  200  pounds ;  at  nine  months, 
300  pounds ;  and  at  twelve  months,  400  pounds.  Heavy 
hogs  dress  higher  than  light  ones,  largely  because  they  are 
usually  fatter  and  more  mature  in  conformation.  The 
following  yields  were  furnished  by  Swift  and  Company, 
Chicago,  as  representative  of  hogs  of  good  average  quality 
as  they  come  to  their  plant : 


LIVE  WEIGH 

30-60    pou 
125-150 
150-200 
200-225 
225-250 
250-300 
300-400 
400-500 

PER  CE 
r                                                       CHILLED 
TO  LIVE 

nds                .          .     .     60-64  p 

NT  OF 
2\HCA 

WEIGI 
er  ce 

88 
IT 

nt 

76 

78 

79 

80 

81 

These  yields  included  the  head  and  leaf  fat.  Chilled 
carcasses  weigh  2|  per  cent  less  than  warm  or  fresh  car- 
casses, on  the  average.  Show  barrows  will  dr^s$  from  3 
to  5  per  cent  higher  than  these  figures. 


Judging  399 

Form  (10  per  cent).  —  The  ideal  fat  barrow  should  first 
impress  one  by  his  symmetry  and  compactness  of  form. 
He  should  be  deep  from  end  to  end,  with  a  nicely  arched 
top  line  and  a  straight  trim  underline.  He  should  have 
great  width  of  top,  with  an  abrupt  square  spring  of  rib, 
rather  than  one  which  falls  gradually  from  the  middle 
line  of  the  back.  He  should  be  uniform  in  width  from  the 
shoulders  clear  back  to  the  base  of  the  hams.  His  side 
lines  should  be  straight  and  the  width  of  back  and  loin 
carried  down  as  uniformly  as  possible  to  the  belly  line. 
His  jowl  should  be  full,  but  not  heavy  or  pendent,  and  the 
head  just  medium  in  size.  The  legs  should  be  straight  and 
strong  and  set  squarely  under  each  corner  of  the  body. 
Such  conformation  means  a  high  proportion  of  dressed 
to  live  weight,  a  maximum  development  in  the  more  val- 
uable parts,  and  a  minimum  amount  of  trimming  in  the 
preparation  of  the  various  cuts  for  market. 

Condition  (10  per  cent). — The  conformation  of  the  ideal 
fat  hog  just  described  is  in  large  part  the  result  of  high 
condition.  From  the  strictly  lard  or  fat  hog  standpoint, 
the  fatter  a  barrow  is  the  better,  provided  the  fat  is 
smoothly  laid  on  and  of  desirable  firmness.  The  covering 
over  the  back,  loin,  and  rump  should  be  particularly  deep 
and  uniform  in  its  thickness.  There  should  be  no  tend- 
ency for  the  fat  to  accumulate  about  the  jowl,  underline, 
and  lower  hams  at  the  expense  of  covering  on  top.  A 
general  tendency  to  flabbiness  and  softness  along  the  lower 
lines,  unevenness  of  covering  along  the  back,  and  a  general 
inability  to  move  about  with  ease  are  evidence  of  an  over- 
done condition.  Lack  of  finish  or  condition  is  shown  by  a 
general  lack  of  thickness  and  plumpness  in  form,  and  lack 
of  depth  and  mellowness  in  the  covering  over  the  back 
and  loin.  High  condition  in  the  finished  fat  or  lard  hog 


400  Pork  Production 

is  desired  chiefly  because  of  the  market  demand  for  lard, 
and  also  because  of  its  relation  to  high  dressing  per- 
centage. 

Quality  (6  per  cent).  —  Quality  is  fineness  of  texture  as 
opposed  to  coarseness.  The  fat  hog  should  show  quality 
and  refinement  in  every  line  and  feature.  His  hair  should 
be  fine,  straight,  and  lie  close  to  the  body.  The  bone 
should  be  medium  in  size,  hard,  and  clean-cut  in  appear- 
ance. The  head  should  be  light,  the  features  refined,  and 
the  ears  light.  The  skin  should  be  soft  and  healthy  and 
there  should  be  an  entire  absence  of  any  tendency  to 
creases.  Deep  creases  about  the  shoulders  and  along 
the  sides  should  be  regarded  as  serious,  as  should  general 
coarseness  of  features.  Quality  is  important  in  the  fat 
hog  because  fine  quality  on  foot  indicates  fine  texture  of 
the  meat  on  the  block.  It  is  important  also  as  it  indicates 
a  minimum  development  of  the  cheaper  parts  of  the  car- 
cass and  a  high  dressing  percentage.  Weight,  form,  condi- 
tion, and  quality  are  the  general  points  on  which  decisions 
are  based  in  judging  finished  fat  hogs.  The  remaining 
parts  of  the  score-card  permit  of  a  consideration  of  these 
same  points  as  applied  to  the  separate  details. 

Head  and  neck  (8  per  cent) .  —  The  head  and  neck  con- 
stitute a  rather  unimportant  part  of  the  fat  hog.  To  the 
butcher  the  head  is  cheap  meat  at  best  and  the  more  re- 
fined, therefore,  the  better.  A  broad  head,  short  neck, 
and  snout  are  usually  associated  with  a  broad  back  and 
loin  and  deep,  heavy  hams.  Quality  and  refinement  in 
these  features  are  desirable  because  they  indicate  fine 
grain  in  the  carcasses  and  light  offal  waste. 

Forequarters  (12  per  cent).  —  The  shoulders  are  the  most 
important  part  of  the  forequarters.  This  is  indicated  on 
the  score-card  by  the  large  credit  of  eight  points  given  it. 


Judging  401 

It  is  particularly  important  that  the  shoulders  be  smooth 
and  compact  on  top  and  free  from  any  tendency  to  rough- 
ness or  creases  along  the  sides.  The  shoulders  should  be 
deep  also  and  the  breast  full  and  the  legs  wide  apart. 

Body  (33  per  cent) .  —  All  parts  of  the  body  are  impor- 
tant to  the  butcher  because  together  they  represent  the 
largest  part  of  the  dressed  carcass.  A  broad,  thick, 
strongly  arched  back,  deep  smooth  sides,  and  a  trim, 
straight,  muscular  underline  are  the  most  important 
features  to  be  desired.  Perhaps  the  most  common  and 
serious  faults  are  a  heavy  paunch  and  "wasty"  underline, 
"fish"  back,  weak  loin,  and  creases  just  back  of  the 
shoulders  on  the  sides. 

Hindquarters  (17  per  cent) .  —  The  hams  represent  the 
principal  parts  of  the  hindquarters.  The  rump  is  a  part 
of  the  ham  cut.  The  width  of  the  rump  and  the  thickness 
of  the  hams  should  be  the  same  as  the  width  of  the  back 
and  loin.  The  hams  should  not  be  soft  and  baggy,  but 
long,  full,  deep,  and  muscular.  They  should  also  be  broad 
or  wide,  and  well  covered  in  the  region  of  the  stifles. 
The  legs  should  be  straight,  strong,  and  set  well  apart. 

JUDGING    THE    FINISHED    BARROW    OF    THE     BACON    TYPE 

Market  requirements. 

The  English  market  sets  the  standard  for  high-grade 
bacon  and  is  extremely  critical  and  discriminating.  The 
manufacturers  of  British  bacon  are,  therefore,  closely 
restricted  in  regard  to  the  kind  of  hog  which  they  can 
profitably  use  and  the  methods  employed  in  curing  it. 
Most  of  the  bacon  exported  by  Canada  is  in  the  form  of 
the  Wiltshire  side  (Plate  VIII),  which  is  especially  de- 
signed to  meet  the  English  demands.  The  requirements 

2D 


402  Pork  Production 

in  a  number  one  Wiltshire  side  may  be  enumerated  as 
follows:  First,  the  side  when  it  comes  out  of  the  salt 
must  be  firm  and  hard ;  second,  the  side  must  contain  a 
maximum  of  lean  meat  of  fine  grain  and  color,  mixed  with 
and  covered  by  just  the  right  amount  of  fat;  third,  the 
carcass  or  side  must  possess  the  desirable  shape ;  fourth, 
it  must  be  within  the  limits  of  weight ;  and  fifth,  it  should 
be  heavy  in  proportion  to  the  live  weight. 

Of  these  points  it  is  most  important  that  the  bacon  be 
firm.  Softness  is  claimed  to  be  the  most  common  and 
serious  fault.  Day,  while  at  the  Ontario  Agricultural 
College,  made  numerous  experiments  to  determine  the 
causes  of  soft  bacon.1  At  the  conclusion  of  his  study,  the 
following  were  given  as  the  most  frequent :  unthriftiness 
of  the  pigs  due  to  insanitary  conditions,  or  a  faulty  or 
unbalanced  ration ;  not  finished  in  condition ;  and  an 
exclusive  corn  ration  for  an  extended  time  during  the 
growing  period.  A  moderate  amount  of  exercise,  a 
balanced  ration  of  mixed  grains  with  dairy  by-products, 
and  general  thriftiness  and  health  all  tended  to  produce 
firm  bacon.  Barley,  either  alone  or  with  oats  or  middlings, 
produced  bacon  of  the  very  best  quality. 

"  A  streak  of  fat  and  a  streak  of  lean"  expresses  well 
one  of  the  essentials  of  good  bacon.  The  lean  must  also 
be  fine  in  texture  and  bright  in  color.  The  fat  in  addi- 
tion to  being  firm  and  white  must  be  even  and  uniform 
in  depth,  from  Ij  to  2  inches  along  the  back  and  loin. 
The  carcass  should  be  long,  especially  between  the  top 
of  the  shoulder  and  the  ham,  and  uniform  in  width  and 
thickness  from  end  to  end.  The  most  valuable  retail 

1  Bull.  10,  The  Production  of  Bacon  for  the  British  Market ; 
Dominion  of  Canada,  Dept.  Agr.,  Branch  of  the  Live-stock 
Commission, 


Judging 


403 


cuts  from  a  Wiltshire  side  are  from  the  side  proper,  in 
the  region  of  the  loin,  back,  and  the  fore  or  bottom  part 
of  the  bacon  proper,  hence  the  demand  for  long,  deep  sides 
and  light  hams  and  shoulders.  The  cheapest  cuts  are  from 
the  lower  shoulder  and  lower  ham.  Rough  heavy  shoulders, 
baggy  hams,  rough  skin,  and  too  much  fat  are,  next  to 
softness,  the  most  common  causes  for  disqualification. 

The  most  desirable  weights  are  produced  by  pigs  weigh- 
ing from  180  to  195  pounds  alive.  High  dressing  per- 
centage is  important  with  bacon  as  with  fat  hogs,  but 
variations  are  quite  secondary  as  a  factor  in  the  price  paid 
for  the  live  animal.  Because  of  the  differences  in  size, 
type,  and  condition,  good  bacon  hogs  usually  dress  from 
3  to  5  per  cent  less  than  good  barrows  of  the  fat  type. 

Score-card  for  bacon  hogs. 

To  satisfy  these  market  requirements,  the  bacon  hog 
must  conform  closely  to  the  ideal  as  expressed  by  the 
description  given  in  the  following  score-card,  which  is 
by  G.  E.  Day  : 1 

SCORE-CARD  FOR  MARKET  HOGS  OF  THE  BACON  TYPE 


SCALE  OF    POINTS 

STANDARD 

STUDENT'S 
SCORE 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE  —  35  per  cent 

1.   Size  —  well  developed  for  age       .     .     . 
2.   Form  —  long;    smooth,  all  parts  pro- 
portionately developed  so  as  to  give 
the    impression    of    a  well-balanced, 
strongly    built    animal.      Top    line, 
strong;     underline,    straight;     belly, 

5 
10 

Productive  Swine  Husbandry." 


404 


Pork  Production 


SCALE  op  POINTS 


STANDARD 


STUDENT'S 
SCORE 


3.  Quality  —  hair     fine ;      skin     smooth, 

showing  no  tendency  to  wrinkle; 
bone,  clean  and  strong;  but  not 
coarse ;  flesh,  firm  and  smooth,  with 
no  flabbiness  at  jowl,  fore-flank,  belly 
or  ham 

4.  Condition  —  well    covered    with    firm 

flesh,  especially  along  the  back  and 
loin,  but  not  heavily  loaded  with  fat 

5.  Style  —  active  and  sprightly,  walking 

without  a  swaying  movement,  and 
standing  well  up  on  toes  .... 

HEAD  AND  NECK  —  8  per  cent 

6.  Snout  —  medium    length    and    moder- 

ately fine 

7.  Face  —  broad  between  eyes ;  poll  broad 

and  full 

8.  Eyes  —  good  size,  full,  and  bright    .     . 

9.  Jowl  —  fair  width  and  muscular,   but 

very  neat,  showing  no  flabbiness  .     . 

10.  Ears  —  moderately    thin,    and   fringed 

with  fine  hair 

11.  Neck  —  medium  length  and  muscular, 

but  possessing  no  tendency  to  arch  on 
top . 

FOREQUARTERS  —  13  per  cent 

12.  Shoulders  —  smooth,  somewhat  rounded 

from  side  to  side  over  top,  and  very 
compact;  no  wider  than  back,  and 
not  running  back  on  side  so  as  to 
shorten  distance  between  shoulders 
and  ham 

13.  Breast  —  good  width  and  full      .     .     . 

14.  Fore    legs  —  set    well    apart,    medium 

length  and  straight;  pasterns  up- 
right ;  bone,  clean  and  strong ;  feet, 
medium  size  and  strongly  formed 


10 
6 


Judging 


405 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 

STANDARD 

STUDENT'S 
SCORE 

BODY  —  30  per  cent 

15.    Back  —  medium  width,  rising  slightly 
above  the  straight  line,  and  forming 
a  very  slight  arch  from  neck  to  root 
of  tail   

6 

16.    Loin  —  wide   as    rest  of  back,   strong 
and  full,  but  not  unduly  arched    . 
17.    Ribs  —  good    length    and    moderately 
arched  

5 
4 

18.    Side  —  fairly  deep  ;    long,  smooth,  and 
straight  between  shoulder  and  ham; 
a   straight  edge   laid   over  shoulder 
point  and  ham  should  touch  the  side 
throughout    

8 

19.   Heart  girth  —  full,  but  not   flabby  at 
fore  flanks,  filled  out  even  with  side 
of    shoulder;     there    should    be    no 
tucked-up  appearance  back  of  fore 
legs  nor  droop  back  of  shoulder  top  . 
20.    Flank  —  full  and  low      

5 
2 

HINDQUARTERS  —  14  per  cent 

21.    Rump  —  same  width  as  back  ;  long  and 
slightly  rounded  from  a  point  above 
hips  to  tail  ;   and  somewhat  rounded 
from  side  to  side  over  top    .... 
22.    Ham  —  full  without  flabbiness  ;    thigh, 
tapering      towards      hock      without 
wrinkles  or  folds,  and  carrying  flesh 
well  down  towards  hock  
23.    Hind  legs  —  medium  length  ;  hocks  set 
well  apart,  but  not  bowed  outward  ; 
bone,    clean   and    strong;     pasterns, 
upright;      feet,     medium    size    and 
strongly  formed      

4 
6 

4 

Total     

100 

406  Pork  Production 

JUDGING  BREEDING  HOGS  OF  THE  LARD  TYPE 

In  judging  breeding  hogs,  the  essential  duties  which 
they  have  to  perform  should  be  kept  uppermost  in  mind. 
To  judge  the  brood  sow  by  fat  barrow  standards  is  to 
neglect  to  consider  many  of  the  features  most  closely 
associated  with  breeding  performance.  This  is  true  of 
breeding  animals  in  show  condition  as  well  as  for  those 
in  ordinary  flesh. 

The  breeder's  requirements. 

The  duties  of  the  brood  sow  are  much  more  complex 
than  those  of  the  finished  barrow  ready  for  market. 
First,  and  most  important,  the  brood  sow  should  be  a 
prolific  and  regular  breeder;  second,  she  should  be  able 
to  produce  the  kind  of  pigs  which  meet  the  demands  of  the 
feeder  with  regard  to  their  ability  to  make  rapid  gains 
and  the  disposition  to  be  finished  or  mature  at  market 
age ;  and  third,  she  should  produce  a  type  of  pig  which 
will  give  the  maximum  returns  as  a  killer  when  he  goes 
to  the  butcher  or  packer.  These  statements  #pply  also 
to  the  boar.  Every  breeder  is  striving  to  produce  the 
type  of  hog  which  he  believes  will  be  most  successful 
in  meeting  these  demands. 

A  standard  of  excellence. 

Breeders  are  not  agreed  on  what  constitutes  the  ideal 
type  of  hog.  Even  those  who  profess  allegiance  to  the 
same  breed  differ  in  what  they  believe  to  be  the  best  and 
most  profitable  type  to  produce.  The  essential  differences 
between  the  various  breeds  of  lard  hogs  are  due  chiefly 
to  the  varying  emphasis  placed  by  the  breeders  on  the 
fundamental  requirements,  breeding  qualities,  feeding 
qualities,  and  killing  qualities.  Although  there  are  breed 


Judging 


407 


differences,  and  although  individual  strains  and  herds 
show  dissimilar  types,  it  is  also  true  that  in  most  points 
there  is  great  unanimity  of  view.  There  is  no  better 
evidence  of  this  than  is  furnished  by  the  striking  similarity 
of  the  respective  breed  champions  at  any  large  show. 

The  description  given  in  the  following  score-card 
attempts  to  express  accurately  the  essential  features  of  an 
ideal  brood  sow,  irrespective  of  color,  set  of  ear,  dish  of 
face,  or  other  breed  type  features.  The  plan  of  the 
score-card  follows  closely  the  method  of  description  em- 
ployed by  the  National  Association  of  Expert  Swine 
Judges  and  the  ideal  expressed  is  based  on  the  type  as 
it  is  exhibited  by  the  best  specimens  of  our  different 
lard  breeds. 

SCORE-CARD  FOR  BROOD  Sows  OF  THE  LARD  TYPE 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 


STANDARD 


STUDENT'S 
SCORE 


1 .  Size  —  score  according  to  condition  and 

age 10 

2.  Head  —  wide  between  the  eyes ;    face 

moderately  dished,  medium  in  length, 
refined  and  feminine 4 

3.  Eyes  —  full,  prominent,  clear  .... 

4.  Ears  —  medium  size ;    strong  knuckle  ; 

fine  quality 

5.  Neck  —  full,     slightly    arched,     short; 

free  from  creases  ;  blending  smoothly 
with  shoulders 

6.  Jowl  —  full,  firm,  smooth,  neat    ...  2 

7.  Shoulders  —  compact,  smooth  ;    broad, 

deep,  full;    blending  smoothly  with 

neck,  back,  and  sides 6 

8.  Chest  —  deep,  full,  large  girth  ;  wide  at 

base  ....  8 


408 


Pork  Production 


SCALE  OP  POINTS 


9.  Back  and  Loin  —  strong,  evenly  arched  ; 
wide  spring  of  rib,  uniform  in  width ; 
smooth,  mellow  covering  .... 

10.  Sides  —  deep,  long,  full,  straight  with 

shoulders  and  ham;  smooth,  even, 
free  from  creases  or  wrinkles  .  .  . 

11.  Belly   and   Flanks  —  belly   broad,   full, 

neat ;  teats  sound,  prominent,  numer- 
ous, symmetrically  placed ;  flanks 
low  and  full 

12.  Rump   and   Ham  —  rump  wide,   same 

width  as  loin,  %  long,  full,  rounding, 
sloping  gradually  from  loin  to  tail; 
hams  long  and  deep,  wide,  thick, 
plump,  muscular,  firm,  smooth  ;  stifles 
well  covered;  junction  of  hams  low 
and  full 

13.  Feet  and  Legs  — :  legs  medium  length, 

straight  and  set  squarely  under  each 
corner  of  the  body;  bone  of  ample 
size,  clean  cut  and  hard,  showing 
quality,  substance,  and  strength ; 
pasterns  straight,  nearly  upright, 
strong;  toes  short,  sound,  squarely 
placed,  equal  size 

14.  Tail  —  medium  size  and  length,  nicely 

curled,  tapering ;  indicative  of  suffi- 
cient size  and  quality 

15.  Coat  —  fine,    straight,    thick,    smooth, 

glossy,  lying  close  to  body,  evenly 
distributed 

16.  Skin  —  healthy,  soft,  clear,  smooth,  free 

from  excessive  scurf  or  scales    .     .     . 

17.  Action  and  Style  —  action  free  and  easy, 

legs  carried  straight  forward ;  attrac- 
tive carriage 

18.  Disposition  —  easy   to   handle,   gentle, 

active,  lively 

19.  Symmetry  and  Balance  of  Points 

Total 


STANDARD 


14 

8 


10 


3 

4 

100 


STUDENT'S 
SCORE 


Judging 


409 


By  making  the  following  substitutions  or  changes  the  above 
score-card  may  be  used  for  the  boar : 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 

STANDARD 

STUDENT'S 
SCORE 

2.    Head  —  wide  between  the  eyes  ;    face 
moderately  dished,  medium  in  length  ; 
strong  and  masculine  . 

4 

5.   Neck  —  full,     slightly    arched,     short, 
strong;   free  from  creases;    blending 
smoothly  with  shoulders       .... 
8.    Chest  —  Give  10  instead  of  8  points 
11.   Belly  and  Flanks  —  belly  broad,  full, 
trim  ;       rudimentaries      prominent  ; 
flanks  low  and  full       

2 
10 

6 

IMPORTANT    GENERAL    POINTS    IN    JUDGING 

In  actual  judging,  the  details  of  the  score-card  may  be 
appropriately  grouped  under  the  following  general  heads : 
(1)  Size,  (2)  form,  (3)  feet  and  legs,  (4)  condition, 
(5)  quality,  and  (6)  sex  characteristics  and  disposition. 
The  importance  and  significance  of  these  fundamental 
points  will  now  be  more  fully  considered. 

Size. 

The  size  should  be  judged  according  to  the  age  and  con- 
dition of  the  individual.  Mature  sows  in  good  breeding 
condition  should  weigh  500  to  550  pounds,  and  mature 
boars  600  to  650  pounds;  sows  eighteen  months  old  in 
good  breeding  condition,  425  to  450  pounds,  and  boars 
500  to  550  pounds ;  gilts  and  boars  twelve  months  of  age 
and  in  thrifty  growing  condition,  375  to  400  pounds. 
Mature  sows  and  boars  in  show  condition  should  weigh 
about  150  to  200  pounds  more  than  when  in  breeding 


410  Pork  Production 

condition;  yearling  sows  and  boars  about  100  pounds 
more  and  gilts  and  young  boars  twelve  months  old  about 
50  pounds  more.  Larger  sizes  are  not  objectionable  if 
accompanied  by  quality,  symmetry  and  smoothness  of 
form,  and  activity. 

There  is  good  reason  for  this  large  size.  Breeding 
animals  should  be  large  because  the  ability  of  the  pig  to 
make  rapid  gains  is  very  largely  determined  by  the  size 
of  its  parents.  Within  reasonable  limits,  the  larger  the 
parents  the  faster  the  gaining  capacity  of  the  pigs.  The 
demand  for  larger  size  in  most  of  our  lard  breeds  of  swine 
originated  with  the  farmers  who  insisted  on  having  pigs 
to  feed  which  had  something  besides  refinement  and 
early  maturity  to  recommend  them.  This  is  the  justifica- 
tion of  the  500-pound  sow  in  the  face  of  the  market  de- 
mand for  a  250-pound  pig. 

That  some  breeders  are  going  to  the  extreme  in  the 
matter  of  size  is  undoubtedly  true.  The  danger  comes 
from  seeking  extreme  size  without  at  the  same  time  in- 
sisting on  its  necessary  complement  of  smoothness  and 
sufficient  early  maturity.  The  fact  that  large  size  and 
quality  seem  opposed  to  each  other  when  either  is  de- 
veloped to  an  extreme  degree  makes  the  attainment  of 
the  ideal  size  with  quality  extremely  difficult.  That  it 
is  not  impossible,  however,  is  demonstrated  by  the  best 
individual  specimens  at  our  state  and  national  shows. 

Form. 

The  form  should  also  be  judged  according  to  the  age 
and  condition  of  the  individual.  The  body  should  be 
deep  and  of  good  length  (the  sow  should  be  a  little  longer 
in  the  middle  than  the  boar) ;  the  back  should  be  strong 
and  well  arched,  the  line  of  arch  being  regular  from  neck 


Judging  411 

to  tail ;  the  flank  should  be  low  and  full,  and  the  length 
of  the  legs  medium.  The  shoulders  should  be  smooth 
and  compact;  the  back  and  loin  broad,  showing  great 
spring  of  rib ;  there  should  be  no  doubt  about  where  the 
back  and  loin  stop  and  the  sides  begin.  There  should 
be  great  uniformity  of  width  from  the  front  of  the  shoulders 
clear  back  to  the  base  of  the  hams,  along  the  middle 
and  bottom  lines  as  well  as  along  the  top.  The  heart 
girth  should  be  full  and  the  sides  straight  and  even ;  the 
hams  should  be  long,  deep,  wide,  and  thick.  The  head 
should  be  broad  and  the  snout  of  medium  length.  The 
eyes  should  be  large,  prominent,  and  clear;  the  neck 
short,  full,  and  joining  smoothly  with  the  shoulders  on 
top  and  along  the  sides.  All  these  parts  should  be  joined 
together  in  a  manner  to  give  great  symmetry  and  smooth- 
ness of  form. 

The  sow  or  boar  in  breeding  condition  should  not  appear 
so  lowset  nor  so  thick  as  the  same  individual  in  show  condi- 
tion. Defects  in  conformation  are  more  apparent  when 
the  animal  is  medium  in  flesh  than  when  fat.  For  this 
reason  it  is  important  that  the  judge  in  the  show-ring 
correctly  estimate  the  effect  of  fat  on  the  appearance  and 
form. 

The  ideal  type  or  form  of  the  brood  sow  is  the  one 
which  best  qualifies  her  for  the  work  she  has  to  do.  The 
form  here  described  is  one  which  permits  of  regular  breed- 
ing habits  and  at  the  same  time  insures  constitution  and 
feeding  capacity  in  her  pigs,  and  their  ability  to  top  the 
market  when  sold  to  the  butcher. 

Form  or  type  seems  to  be  more  or  less  influenced  by 
size.  Extreme  size  frequently  means  extreme  length  of 
leg  and  lack  of  thickness  or  spring  of  rib.  It  is  also  too 
often  associated  with  a  slack  heart  girth,  flat  rump,  and  a 


412  Pork  Production 

general  lack  of  symmetry.  On  the  other  hand,  the  small 
kinds  tend  towards  the  extremely  short,  thick,  "dumpy" 
type,  inclining  their  pigs  more  to  fat  and  early  maturity 
than  to  bone  development  and  growth.  To  a  large  extent 
this  is  probably  due,  not  so  much  to  the  fact  that  symmetry 
of  form  and  large  size  are  necessarily  opposed  to  one 
another,  but  because  of  the  tendency  of  the  breeder  to 
neglect  the  form  in  his  constant  effort  to  obtain  size.  A 
wide  spring  of  rib  and  a  balanced  symmetrical  conforma- 
tion are  possible  in  individuals  of  great  size.  If  individ- 
uals possessing  this  desirable  combination  can  be  pro- 
duced, it  means  that  whole  herds  of  this  type  are  possible. 

Feet  and  legs. 

In  the  mature  sow  and  boar,  the  legs  should  be  of 
medium  length,  neither  too  short  nor  too  long.  Pigs 
should  appear  a  trifle  upstanding.  The  bone  should  not 
be  fine,  but  medium  to  large  in  size,  and  clean  cut,  hard, 
and  strong  in  appearance.  The  legs  should  be  straight 
viewed  from  the  side,  front,  or  rear,  attached  squarely 
under  each  corner  of  the  body,  and  particularly  strong 
at  the  hocks,  knees,  and  pasterns.  The  pasterns  should 
be  short  also,  and  the  feet  strong  and  symmetrically 
shaped. 

Breeders  who  select  for  fine  bone  in  their  hogs  usually 
lose  size,  constitution,  and  general  ruggedness.  And, 
on  the  other  hand,  those  who  value  heavy  bone  as  a  merit 
in  itself  are  in  danger  of  sacrificing  quality,  smoothness, 
and  early  maturity.  Since  the  ideal  hog  must  have 
size  with  quality,  and  ruggedness  with  smoothness  and 
early  maturity,  the  wise  course  for  the  breeder  to  pursue 
would  seem  to  be  one  which  lay  between  these  two  ex- 
tremes. 


Judging  413 


Condition. 


Show  standards  place  a  premium  on  high  condition 
regardless  of  the  fact  that  injury  to  the  breeding  func- 
tions frequently  results.  To  meet  this  standard  without 
doing  permanent  injury  to  the  individuals  should  be  the 
purpose  and  endeavor  of  the  exhibitor.  The  fat  covering 
should  not  only  be  thick,  but  also  uniform  in  depth  all 
over  the  top  from  the  shoulders  back  to  the  tail  and 
down  along  the  sides.  There  should  be  no  tendency 
to  bareness  in  the  region  of  the  rump  and  loin,  or  to  rolls 
along  the  fore  ribs  or  back.  The  covering  should  be  firm 
and  elastic  to  the  touch  on  top,  and  there  should  be  no 
excessive  softness  or  flabbiness  in  the  jowl,  along  the 
lower  lines  and  hams.  High  condition  is  to  the  credit  of 
the  individual,  provided  the  fat  covering  is  smooth  and 
firm  and  the  weight  is  carried  with  ease  and  style.  The 
judge,  however,  is  justified  in  sharply  discriminating 
against  excessive  fatness  as  shown  by  lack  of  smoothness, 
or  extreme  softness  or  flabbiness  of  covering,  and  general 
inability  to  move  about  with  ease  and  freedom.  When 
in  breeding  flesh,  the  sow  or  boar  should  give  evidence 
of  easy  keeping  qualities  as  shown  by  the  general  appear- 
ance of  health,  good  condition  on  moderate  feed,  and 
elasticity  of  covering  along  the  back  and  loin. 

Quality. 

The  indications  of  quality  are  the  same  in  breeding 
hogs  as  in  the  fat  barrow.  The  sow  or  boar  in  thin  or 
fat  condition  should  have  a  smooth  fine  coat  of  hair. 
Swirls  are  especially  undesirable.  There  should  be  an 
entire  absence  of  any  tendency  towards  deep  creases, 
wrinkles,  coarse  or  unhealthy  skin.  Excessive  develop- 
ment of  shields  on  the  mature  boar  is  objectionable. 


414  Pork  Production 

There  should  be  no  evidence  of  coarseness  or  grossness 
of  the  features  about  the  head ;  the  face  should  be  clean 
(free  from  coarse  hair  and  wrinkled  skin),  the  ears  thin, 
and  the  jowls  neat.  The  bone  should  be  clean  and  hard 
looking.  A  little  more  general  refinement  is  expected 
in  the  sow  than  in  the  boar. 

Quality  is  desired  in  breeding  stock  because  of  the  rela- 
tion it  bears  to  early  maturity  and  killing  qualities  of  the 
finished  market  pig.  Early  maturity  means  the  ability 
to  fatten  and  be  ready  for  market  at  a  comparatively 
early  age.  The  degree  of  early  maturity  wanted  in  hog 
stock  is  that  which  is  just  sufficient  to  guarantee  a  fairly 
finished  condition  when  the  pigs  are  from  six  to  eight 
months  of  age.  The  ideal  is  not  only  to  have  pigs  which 
possess  large  capacity  for  growth,  but  which  at  the  same 
time  possess  sufficient  ability  to  fatten  to  satisfy  market 
requirements  when  sold. 

Quality  must  not  be  insisted  on,  however,  to  the  point 
where  size  and  growthiness  are  sacrificed.  The  tendency 
to  do  this  has  ruined  many  herds.  It  seems  to  be  much 
easier  to  secure  and  maintain  a  high  degree  of  quality 
than  it  is  size.  Although  it  is  difficult  to  develop  and 
maintain  ample  size  in  itself,  to  do  this  and  at  the  same 
time  retain  sufficient  quality  is  more  difficult  still,  but 
possible.  At  any  rate  this  is  the  ideal  which  all  breeders 
are  striving  to  produce. 

Sex  characteristics  and  disposition. 

Strong  masculinity  should  be  as  pronounced  in  the 
boar  as  femininity  is  in  the  sow.  Masculinity  is  shown 
not  only  by  normally  developed  sex  organs,  but  also  by 
the  tendency  to  be  less  refined  about  the  head  than  is 
characteristic  of  the  sow,  stronger  in  the  neck,  heavier 


Judging  415 

in  front,  a  little  closer  in  coupling,  and  more  compact 
in  form.  A  prominent  development  of  rudimentaries  in 
the  boar  is  believed  by  many  to  indicate  deep  milking 
tendencies  in  his  gilts.  Femininity  of  the  sow  should  be 
displayed  by  a  strong  development  of  the  mammary 
system.  The  teats  should  be  prominent,  symmetrically 
placed,  uniformly  developed,  and  as  many  as  twelve  or 
fourteen.  Refinement  about  the  head  and  good  length 
and  depth  of  sides  are  characteristics  also  of  the  most 
feminine  sows.  Strong  development  of  the  characters 
associated  with  sex  are  believed  to  indicate  fertile  reliable 
breeding  traits  in  the  sow  and  boar. 

It  is  a  matter  of  considerable  importance  that  the  boar 
and  sow  have  good  dispositions.  They  should  be  mild 
and  quiet  rather  than  nervous,  irritable,  mean,  or  cross. 
But  they  should  be  active  and  vigorous  rather  than 
sluggish,  awkward,  or  unduly  lazy.  A  good  disposition 
is  closely  associated  with  the  best  feeding  qualities  as 
well  as  being  an  important  factor  in  the  number  of  pigs 
which  a  sow  succeeds  in  raising. 

Breed  type  characteristics. 

The  features  or  peculiarities  which  serve  to  distinguish 
one  breed  of  hogs  from  another  of  the  same  type  collec- 
tively represent  its  breed  type  characteristics.  Variations 
in  the  characters  of  color,  set  of  ear,  or  dish  of  face  are 
the  ones  on  which  breed  differences  are  primarily  based. 
In  addition  to  these,  slight  variations  in  general  conforma- 
tion, size,  refinement,  and  early  maturity  are  met  with 
in  varying  degree.  These  features  were  not  considered 
in  the  score-card  described  previously. 

In  judging  pure-bred  hogs  of  the  breeding  classes,  how- 
ever, a  faithful  adherence  to  breed  type  standards,  as  well 


416  Pork  Production 

as  to  the  ideals  common  to  all  breeds,  is  the  duty  of 
every  judge.  The  standard  adopted  by  the  judge 
should  be  the  one  sought  by  the  best  present-day  breeders 
rather  than  that  described  in  unrevised  score-cards  or 
standards  which  have  long  been  out  of  date.  But  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  breed  type  standards  cannot  be 
acquired  alone  by  reading  descriptions,  however  clear 
and  accurate  they  may  be.  Although  these  are  helpful, 
they  must  be  supplemented  by  the  knowledge  gained 
through  intimate  contact  with  the  affairs  of  the  breed  and 
the  constant  observation  of  the  type  preferred  by  most 
breeders  as  reflected  in  their  selections  made  in  the  herd, 
sale,  and  show  ring.  Due  to  the  fact  that  few,  if  any, 
breeds  have  a  fixed  and  constant  type,  and  because  also  at 
no  time  are  all  breeders  exactly  agreed  on  the  emphasis 
which  should  be  placed  on  certain  points,  there  is  always 
ample  opportunity  for  the  individual  preference  of  the 
judge  to  be  expressed  in  the  type  which  he  selects.  The 
power  which  the  judge  has  in  molding  and  uniting  the 
varying  ideals  of  the  breeders  is  the  heaviest  and  most 
important  responsibility  conferred  on  him  by  the  office. 
To  select  the  type  which  will  make  good  as  practical 
pork  producers  without  sacrificing  in  any  important 
degree  the  breed  type  characteristics,  which  represent 
the  trade  mark  of  a  breed,  should  be  the  steady  purpose 
of  the  judge  and  breeder.  (See  Chapter  XIX.) 

JUDGING   GILTS  AND  YOUNG  BOARS 

In  judging  young  boars  and  gilts,  it  is  important  that 
they  be  considered  as  prospective  breeders  rather  than 
according  to  the  standards  of  type  required  of  mature 
individuals  or  finished  fat  barrows.  The  type  of  gilt 


Judging  417 

should  be  preferred  which  gives  promise  by  her  size  and 
form  to  develop  into  a  large,  smooth,  roomy  sow  at 
maturity.  To  obtain  this  type  the  mistake  should  not 
be  made  of  selecting  the  short,  thick,  fine-boned  kind. 
The  short,  chubby  gilt  which  possesses  the  form  and 
finish  of  a  mature  sow  rarely  develops  into  the  type  the 
breeder  desires.  To  obtain  the  kind  which  will  grow 
out  well,  preference  should  be  given  to  those  which  appear 
a  trifle  leggy  and  which  are  large  for  their  age.  It  is  of 
great  importance  also  that  they  be  strong  in  the  back, 
of  good  length,  possess  prominent  well-placed  teats,  and 
be  squarely  placed  on  straight  legs  of  ample  bone.  With 
these  all  the  depth,  spring  of  rib,  and  quality  possible 
should  be  secured. 

JUDGING   FEEDERS 

The  most  important  point  in  the  selection  of  feeder  pigs 
is  to  have  them  healthy,  vigorous,  and  free  from  any 
contagious  disease.  Pigs  which  have  passed  through 
stock-yards,  although  vaccinated  against  cholera,  are  a 
greater  risk  than  pigs  which  have  never  been  shipped. 
Pigs  which  cough  much,  have  rough  coats  or  mattery 
eyes,  or  are  gaunt  and  listless  in  appearance  should  also 
be  looked  on  with  suspicion  (see  Chapter  XX) .  A  knowl- 
edge of  the  conditions  of  sanitation  and  methods  of 
feeding  employed  on  the  farm  where  the  pigs  were  pro- 
duced is  necessary  in  order  to  judge  accurately  their 
probable  health  and  feeding  qualities. 

A  second  important  point  is  to  get  the  pigs  as  uniform 
as  possible  in  age,  weight,  condition,  previous  feeding, 
color,  and  type.  Similarity  of  color  usually  means 
similarity  of  breeding  and  hence  uniformity  in  the  result- 
ing features  of  type  and  early  maturity.  A  load  of  pigs 

2E 


418  Pork  Production 

uniform  in  age,  condition,  and  method  of  previous  feeding 
will  feed  more  uniformly,  reach  market  weight  and  finish 
more  nearly  at  the  same  time,  and  will  sell  more  satis- 
factorily when  placed  on  the  market. 

The  ability  of  a  pig  to  make  rapid  gains  is  largely 
influenced  by  his  form  or  type.  Also,  his  appearance  when 
finished  for  market  may  be  predicted  by  that  when  thin. 
He  should  possess  the  same  essentials  of  good  conformation 
demanded  of  the  pig  intended  for  the  breeding  herd,  with 
emphasis  on  those  features  which  denote  vigor  and  feeding 
capacity.  He  should  be  broad  at  the  poll,  wide  between 
the  eyes,  with  a  face  of  medium  length.  A  narrow  head 
and  long  sharp  nose  are  not  associated  with  either  good 
feeding  or  good  killing  qualities.  He  should  be  strong 
backed,  wide  in  his  spring  of  rib,  and  show  plenty  of 
capacity  of  middle.  A  full  heart  girth  and  low  flanks  are 
indications  of  constitution  and  gaining  ability  which 
should  not  be  overlooked.  It  is  of  special  importance 
also  that  he  be  good  in  his  legs  and  feet;  that  is,  they 
should  be  medium  in  length,  squarely  set,  straight  and 
strong. 

Condition,  or  degree  of  fatness,  is  an  important  point 
in  judging  feeders.  The  most  satisfactory  feeders,  as  a 
rule,  are  those  which  are  well  grown  for  their  weight,  or 
in  other  words,  are  in  a  thrifty  growing  condition  rather 
than  fat.  Pigs  which  have  been  grain-fed  in  dry  lots  do 
not  gain  as  well  as  those  which  have  been  largely  grown  on 
forage.  Forage-fed  pigs  are  usually  thinner,  have  more 
"stretch,"  are  glossier  of  coat  and  more  healthy  than 
pen-fed  pigs. 

In  weight  feeder  pigs  usually  range  from  65  to  150 
pounds,  and  in  age  from  three  to  eight  months.  There 
seems  to  be  no  best  weight  or  age,  although  the  heavier 


Judging 

and  older  the  pigs,  the  shorter  will  be  the  time  required 
to  get  them  to  market  condition.  Although  the  lighter 
pigs  require  a  longer  feed  and  do  not  make  such  rapid 
gains,  they  make  more  gain  from  a  given  unit  of  feed 
consumed.  For  following  cattle  the  heavier  pigs  are 
more  suitable. 

As  much  quality  should  be  secured  as  possible  provided 
general  vigor  and  constitution  are  not  sacrificed.  Quality 
in  feeder  pigs  will  insure  a  finished  condition  when  market 
weights  are  reached  and  will  do  much  to  help  sell  them 
when  ready  to  ship. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

BREEDS  OF  HOGS 

THERE  are  now  in  America  eight  clearly  defined  breeds 
of  hogs  which  may  be  regarded  as  fairly  well  established 
in  numbers,  or  which  give  promise  of  soon  becoming  so. 
These  are  the  Poland-China,  Duroc-Jersey,  Hampshire, 
Berkshire,  Chester-White,  and  Spotted  Poland-Chinas  of 
the  lard  type,  and  the  Large  Yorkshire  and  Tamworth 
of  the  bacon  type.  The  Hampshire  should  perhaps  be 
classed  as  intermediate  between  the  lard  and  the  bacon 
types,  although  the  type  as  generally  shown  seems  to 
exhibit  more  of  the  former  characteristics  than  of  the 
latter.  As  bred  in  Canada,  the  Berkshire  has  a  decided 
leaning  toward  the  bacon  type.  In  addition  to  these 
more  common  breeds,  the  following  are  less  widely  dis- 
tributed :  Cheshire,  Victoria,  Essex,  Suffolk,  Small  York- 
shire, and  Mule-Foot. 

As  generally  understood,  a  breed  may  be  defined  as  a 
group  of  animals  the  individuals  of  which  possess  certain 
well-defined  characteristics  in  common  and  which  transmit 
these  characteristics  to  their  offspring  with  a  reasonable 
degree  of  certainty.  The  great  variety  of  stock  contribut- 
ing the  foundation  blood  of  the  different  breeds  furnished 
the  possibilities  in  hereditary  combinations  which  made 
possible  the  later  development  of  the  improved  types  by 
selection.  The  best  evidence  now  indicates  that  the 

420 


Breeds  of  Hogs  421 

part  which  more  liberal  feeding  and  improved  environ- 
ment played  in  breed  formation  and  improvement  was  to 
provide  the  conditions  whereby  the  inherent  possibilities 
of  the  individuals  could  be  tested.  More  intensive  feed- 
ing, in  other  words,  was  not  the  direct  cause  of  the  evo- 
lution of  the  modern  early-maturing  breeds;  it  was  the 
selection  by  the  breeder  of  those  individuals  which  were 
capable  of  prospering  under  these  conditions. 

Although  most  of  the  breeds  of  hogs  are  not  so  old  as 
the  larger  number  of  breeds  of  cattle  and  horses,  as  age  is 
usually  reckoned,  they  are  older  than  most  other  improved 
animals  when  measured  by  number  of  generations  rather 
than  by  number  of  years.  This  is  because  little  more 
than  a  year  separates  two  successive  generations  of  hogs, 
while  there  are  from  three  to  four  in  cattle  and  usually 
five  in  horses.  This,  with  the  large  number  of  young 
produced  by  each  generation,  explains  why  the  develop- 
ment of  the  various  breeds  of  hogs  has  been  so  rapid  and 
the  degree  of  improvement  effected  so  extraordinary; 
for  there  is  probably  no  species  or  breed  of  farm  animal 
which  has  been  more  successfully  bred  to  meet  given 
economic  needs  than  has  the  American  hog. 

In  the  following  pages  very  brief  consideration  is  given 
to  the  origin,  history,  and  present  dominant  characteristics 
of  the  more  common  breeds.  The  purpose  is  not  to 
attempt  an  answer  to  the  question  as  to  what  is  the 
best  breed  of  hogs,  but  rather  to  note  the  important 
characteristics  for  which  each  is  distinguished. 

THE   POLAND-CHINA    (PLATE    IX) 

The  birthplace  of  the  Poland-China  breed  is  in  south- 
western Ohio  in  the  counties  of  Butler,  Warren,  and 


422  Pork  Production 

Hamilton.  The  breed  originated  from  a  composite  stock 
of  great  variety.  The  Warren  County  pig,  which  was  the 
widely  known  hog  of  this  district  from  1816  to  1835,  was 
the  product  of  crossing  the  medium-sized  Big  China  on  the 
larger,  coarser  Russian  and  Byfield  stock.  All  these  hogs 
were  mostly  white.  From  1835  to  1839,  Berkshire  blood 
was  introduced  in  considerable  quantities.  The  color  and 
much  of  the  early  maturity  and  quality  which  later 
distinguished  the  breed  undoubtedly  came  from  this 
source.  In  1839  a  few  white  hogs  were  imported  from 
Ireland,  called  the  Irish  Grazier.  It  is  claimed  that  no 
outside  blood  has  been  introduced  since  1845. 

The  development  of  the  breed  from  that  time  until 
recently  has  been  in  the  direction  of  great  refinement, 
remarkable  early  maturity,  and  quality.  A  more  brilliant 
demonstration  of  the  fine  art  of  the  breeder  is  probably 
not  to  be  found  in  the  whole  history  of  live-stock  improve- 
ment than  that  furnished  by  the  perfection  of  form  and 
show-ring  quality  attained  by  this  breed  according  to 
the  standards  then  set.  Since  about  1914  the  breeder's 
ideal  has  radically  changed  in  response  to  the  feeder's 
demand  for  more  ruggedness  and  size  and  the  breeder's 
demand  for  more  reliable  breeding  habits.  Where 
extreme  quality  was  formerly  sought,  extreme  size  is 
now  demanded.  The  change  of  type  which  has  been 
brought  about  in  the  short  space  of  five  years  is  a  remark- 
able demonstration  of  the  possibilities  of  the  breed  and 
of  the  resourcefulness  of  the  breeders  in  meeting  the  new 
demand.  At  the  present  time,  the  breed  is  rapidly 
advancing  towards  greater  uniformity  of  type  and  the 
ideal  which  demands  great  size,  but  which  also  requires 
sufficient  symmetry  of  form  and  early  maturity  to  meet 
the  practical  demands  of  the  feeder  and  market, 


Breeds  of  Hogs  423 

THE  DUROC-JERSEY    (PLATE    x) 

Much  uncertainty  exists  regarding  the  exact  elements 
making  up  the  foundations  of  the  Duroc- Jersey  breed,  but 
it  is  believed  to  have  originated  from  a  fusion  of  the  so- 
called  Jersey  Red  breed  of  New  Jersey  and  New  York, 
and  the  Durocs  of  New  York.  The  former  were  large 
and  inclined  to  be  coarse,  while  the  latter  were  rather  fine 
of  bone  and  carcass.  These  two  strains  of  red  hogs 
probably  descended  from  importations  of  Red  Guinea 
hogs  from  Africa,  made  as  early  as  1804,  the  Spanish  red 
hogs  from  Spain,  and  the  Red  Portuguese  breed  from 
Portugal.  It  is  believed  that  sandy-colored  Berkshires, 
which  were  more  or  less  common  at  that  time,  also  con- 
tributed some  influence  on  the  foundation  stock. 

Uniformity  of  color  and  type  and  the  other  character- 
istics for  which  this  breed  has  become  noted  have  been 
developed  chiefly  since  1885.  From  1900  to  the  present 
time  the  breed  has  attained  an  unusually  strong  position 
of  merited  popularity,  especially  throughout  the  corn-belt 
and  the  South.  The  two  characteristics  which  have  had 
most  to  do  in  winning  this  position  are :  first,  the  pro- 
lificacy of  the  sows ;  and  second,  the  good  feeding  quali- 
ties of  the  pigs.  Like  the  Poland-China,  the  Duroc- 
Jersey  is  now  being  bred  for  greater  scale.  With  all 
breeders  working  towards  the  common  goal  of  size  with 
quality,  prolificacy,  and  vigorous  feeding  qualities,  the 
breed  will  undoubtedly  be  able  to  maintain  the  high 
position  which  it  has  gained. 

THE   HAMPSHIRE    (PLATE    x) 

Little  authentic  information  exists  relative  to  the  origin 
of  this  breed.  It  is  recorded,  however,  that  from  1820  to 


424  Pork  Production 

1825  importations  were  made  from  England  to  Massa- 
chusetts of  hogs  which  there  gained  popularity  and  were 
known  as  the  Thin  Rind.  In  1835  Thin  Rind  hogs, 
probably  from  eastern  sources,  were  introduced  into 
Kentucky,  where  the  breed  probably  had  its  early  develop- 
ment. The  official  beginning  of  the  breed  was  in  Boone 
County,  Kentucky,  in  1893,  under  the  name  Thin  Rind. 
In  1904  the  name  was  changed  by  the  association  to 
Hampshire. 

The  history  of  the  development  of  this  breed  has  largely 
been  written  in  the  last  fifteen  years.  During  that  period 
the  breed  has  experienced  an  unprecedented  growth  in 
numbers  and  popularity.  This  has  been  due  not  only 
to  the  merit  of  the  breed  itself,  but  to  the  energetic 
methods  of  the  association  in  promoting  the  breed's 
interests. 

The  Hampshire  is  a  medium-sized  breed,  full  of  quality ; 
the  sows  are  good  mothers  and  the  pigs  excellent  rustlers 
and  great  killers.  As  judged  at  the  different  shows,  a 
diversity  of  types  exists.  Although  most  of  those  pro- 
duced in  the  corn-belt  are  more  of  the  lard  than  of  the 
bacon  type,  some  breeders  select  for  the  latter  and  many 
for  the  type  which  is  a  happy  blend  of  both.  A  severe 
handicap  with  which  the  breed  has  to  contend  is  the  self- 
imposed  restriction  that  only  those  which  wear  the  white 
belt  are  eligible  to  favor. 

THE   BERKSHIRE    (PLATE    x) 

The  Berkshire  is  the  oldest  of  our  breeds  of  lard  hogs 
and  the  only  one  of  English  origin.  In  1789  it  was  written 
by  Culley  1  that  Berkshires  were  more  numerous  than  any 

1  Plumb's  "Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals." 


Breeds  of  Hogs  425 

other  pigs  in  England.  They  were  described  at  that  time 
as  being  reddish-brown  with  black  spots,  with  large 
drooping  ears,  short  legs,  fine  bone,  and  inclined  to  fatten 
at  an  early  age.  Another  writer  at  about  the  same  time 
said  they  were  large-boned,  with  turned-up  snouts,  and 
some  of  the  specimens  very  large.  On  this  stock  Chinese, 
Siamese,  and  Neapolitan  blood  was  used  with  the  effect 
of  reducing  size,  increasing  refinement  and  the  early 
disposition  to  fatten.  In  1830  they  were  said  to  be  of 
a  sandy  or  whitish-brown  color  spotted  regularly  with 
dark  brown  or  black,  erect  of  ears,  the  head,  snout,  body 
and  legs  short,  and  producers  of  superior  bacon.  Most 
of  this  development  took  place  in  Berkshire  and  neighbor- 
ing counties  in  central  southern  England. 

The  first  importation  to  America  occurred  in  1823. 
From  then  on  to  1841  several  fairly  large  shipments 
were  made.  By  1845  there  were  well-established  herds 
in  New  Jersey,  New  York,  and  Pennsylvania. 

The  dominant  characteristic  of  the  Berkshire  is  its 
excellent  killing  qualities.  The  carcass  is  unusually  firm 
and  contains  a  very  high  proportion  of  lean  meat  of  the 
finest  texture.  This  is  the  principal  reason  why  it  is 
popular  in  Canada  where  it  is  bred  along  bacon  type 
standards,  and  for  the  preference  which  many  American 
packers  have  expressed  for  the  breed.  They  are  very 
prepotent,  unexcelled  in  rustling  qualities,  and  quickly 
adapt  themselves  to  new  conditions.  As  bred  in  recent 
years,  they  are  medium  as  to  size.  The  rather  tardy 
recognition  by  the  association  of  the  need  for  more  size 
to  meet  the  new  demand,  has  lost  for  the  breed  some  of 
its  former  popularity  in  the  corn-belt.  However,  with 
the  emphasis  which  is  now  being  placed  in  selection  on 
size  and  feeding  capacity,  and  the  general  disposition 


426  Pork  Production 

among  the  breeders  to  give  less  attention  to  the  "finer 
points"  of  breed-type,  the  breed's  admirers  feel  confident 
that  the  high  position  which  it  has  attained  will  be  success- 
fully maintained. 

THE   CHESTER-WHITE    (PLATE    X) 

The  Chester- White  breed  as  it  now  exists  has  been 
developed  from  a  foundation  stock  made  up  of  three 
principal  strains.  The  first  was  the  white  hogs  bred  in 
Chester  and  Delaware  counties,  Pennsylvania.  These 
descended  from  some  white  pigs  imported  from  England 
in  1820,  and  later  from  the  same  source  some  white  hogs 
with  black  and  sandy  patches  of  hair,  said  to  have  been 
Chinese  stock.  The  second  strain  was  developed  in  Ohio 
and  was  known  as  Todd's  Improved  Chester-Whites. 
These  were  produced  by  selection  and  crossing  from  stock 
originally  imported  to  Connecticut  from  England  and 
called  the  Norfolk  Thin  Rind  pigs,  the  Byfield  breed  in 
Massachusetts,  the  Large  Grass  breed  in  Ohio,  and  a 
Normandy  boar  of  French  ancestry.  The  third  strain 
was  also  developed  in  Ohio  and  went  under  the  name, 
Ohio  Improved  Chester-Whites,  the  "O.  I.  C.'s."  These 
were  developed  from  white  pigs  purchased  in  the  eastern 
states  in  1865. 

The  Chester-White  is,  therefore,  one  of  the  oldest 
breeds  of  hogs  which  has  had  an  American  origin.  Due 
to  the  large  size  and  mellow  feeding  qualities  for  which 
the  white  hogs  were  early  noted,  it  played  a  leading  role 
with  the  farmer  in  his  invasion  of  the  rich  corn  lands  of 
the  Middle  West.  The  breed  has  always  been  a  popular 
farmer's  hog.  The  sows  are  noted  for  their  ability  to 
produce  good-sized  litters,  the  pigs  are  good  gainers  and 


Breeds  of  Hogs  427 

mature  early,  while  the  finished  fat  barrows  have  made  an 
enviable  record  in  the  show-ring  and  on  the  block.  Like 
most  lard  breeds,  the  Chester-White  has  suffered  from 
over-refinements.  Since  about  1917,  however,  the  breed- 
ers have  been  conservatively  breeding  for  more  scale. 

THE  SPOTTED  POLAND-CHINA  (PLATE  Xl) 

This  breed  had  its  official  beginning  with  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  National  Spotted  Poland-China  Record  Asso- 
ciation at  Indianapolis,  January  1st,  1914.  The  real 
beginning  of  the  breed,  however,  dates  much  farther  back. 
As  is  well  known,  a  larger  part  of  the  stock  making  up  the 
foundations  of  the  Poland-China  breed  was  white  in  color 
and  many  of  the  herds  which  were  maintained  from  1845 
to  1880  were  largely  spotted.  These  old  spotted  Polands 
had  a  reputation  for  size,  ruggedness,  bone,  and  pro- 
lificacy. The  modern  Spotted  Poland-China  descended 
from  those  herds  located  chiefly  in  central  Indiana,  which 
preserved  the  old  spotted  type  for  their  standard.  In 
1914  B.  E.  Arbuckle  and  Son,  Brownsburg,  Indiana, 
imported  a  pair  of  spotted  hogs  from  England  which  are 
recognized  as  foundation  animals.  It  is  believed  that  the 
blood  of  these  hogs  is  found  in  about  5  per  cent  of  the 
animals  of  to-day. 

According  to  Secretary  Fred  L.  Obenchain,  Bainbridge, 
Indiana,  to  be  eligible  to  record,  an  animal  must  descend 
from  individuals  already  recorded  in  the  National  Spotted 
Poland-China  Record  Association,  the  American  Spotted 
PolarTd-China  Record  Association,  the  National  Spotted 
Poland  Association,  or  the  American,  National,  or  Stand- 
ard Poland-China  Associations.  In  addition  to  meeting 
the  breeding  or  pedigree  requirements  for  registry,  they 


428  Pork  Production 

must  conform  to  the  official  standard  for  the  individuals, 
in  color  (not  less  than  20  or  more  than  80  per  cent  black) , 
size,  form,  and  quality. 

The  aim  of  the  present  day  breeders  is  to  maintain  and 
improve  on  the  virtues  of  the  old  Spotted  Poland-China. 
During  the  last  few  years,  the  breed  has  grown  rapidly 
in  numbers  and  popularity  and  the  herds  have  become 
more  uniform  in  type.  With  the  utility  type  the  standard 
and  cooperation  and  unity  of  purpose  among  the  breeders 
the  rule,  the  future  for  the  breed  appears  bright. 

THE   LARGE  YORKSHIRE    (PLATE    Xl) 

This  English  bacon  breed  had  its  origin  in  Yorkshire 
and  neighboring  counties  of  England  nearly  a  century  ago. 
The  early  foundation  stock  consisted  of  large  white  hogs 
with  black  or  bluish  spots  on  the  skin,  with  heavy  bone, 
very  large  drooping  ears,  long  legs,  and  narrow  backs  and 
loins.  This  stock  is  said  to  have  been  improved  by  the 
use  of  some  Berkshire  blood  as  early  as  1842,  and  later, 
of  white  Leicester  hogs.  These  latter  were  large,  but  fine 
of  head  and  bone,  and  with  erect  ears.  To  improve  their 
fattening  qualities,  boars  of  the  Small  Yorkshire  breed 
were  also  used. 

Yorkshires  were  imported  into  the  United  States  at  a 
comparatively  early  date,  but  have  never  become  widely 
distributed  since  they  are  better  adapted  to  bacon  than 
to  lard  production.  In  Canada  where  the  bacon  type  of 
hog  predominates,  the  Yorkshire  has  become  the  standard 
breed.  Most  of  the  herds  in  this  country  are  foutid  in 
Minnesota  and  other  small-grain  growing  sections. 

In  addition  to  its  bacon  type,  the  predominating  char- 
acteristics of  this  breed  are  its  large  size  and  the  unusual 


Breeds  of  Hogs  429 

prolificacy  of  the  sows.  The  pigs  are  fine  rustlers  and  com- 
pare favorably  with  any  breed  in  their  ability  to  make 
rapid  gains.  Judged  by  lard-type  standards,  the  pigs  do 
not  fatten  early,  but  when  the  Yorkshire  is  crossed  with 
any  of  the  lard  breeds  the  pigs  admirably  suit  the  require- 
ments of  the  corn-belt  feeder  and  packer.  To  profit  by 
the  pig-producing  ability  of  the  breed,  boars  of  the  lard 
breeds  should  be  crossed  on  Yorkshire  sows.  A  careful 
study  of  present  show-ring  standards  disclosed  the  in- 
teresting fact  that  most  of  the  lard  breeds  seem  to  be 
tending  somewhat  in  the  direction  of  Yorkshire  type, 
which  is  not  to  be  considered  as  altogether  to  their  dis- 
credit. 

THE  TAMWORTH    (PLATE    Xl) 

Although  the  Tamworth  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  oldest 
English  varieties,  little  is  known  regarding  its  early  history 
and  development.  The  stock  from  which  the  breed  orig- 
inated is  described  as  having  been  of  a  dark-red  color, 
very  lean  and  active,  slow  to  mature,  with  very  long  legs 
and  snouts,  and  shallow  bodies.  This  type  of  hog  was 
common  in  central  England  at  an  early  date,  especially 
in  Staffordshire  where  the  breed  is  supposed  to  have  had 
its  early  development.  The  breed  seems  to  have  been 
slow  in  winning  general  popularity  in  England,  and  it 
was  not  until  about  1880  that  its  present  characteristics 
became  fixed  by  selection.  The  Royal  Agricultural  Society 
did  not  give  the  breed  a  separate  show  classification  until 
1885. 

The  first  pigs  of  this  breed  to  be  imported  into  America 
were  brought  into  Ohio  in  1882,  but  they  were  not  destined 
to  win  any  general  popularity  in  this  country.  At  about 
the  same  time  Canadian  importations  were  made  and 


430  Pork  Production 

here  the  breed  found  more  congenial  environment  and  has 
since  enjoyed  a  reasonable  degree  of  popularity. 

The  Tamworth  as  now  bred  is  of  the  extreme  bacon 
type,  long,  smooth,  and  deep-sided.  The  sows  are  re- 
markably prolific,  the  pigs  are  excellent  rustlers  and  good 
gainers  and  are  of  the  type  which  produce  meat  suitable 
for  the  manufacture  of  fine  bacon. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
BREEDING 

THE  fundamental  purpose  of  the  breeder  is  to  improve 
his  stock.  There  are  two  ways  of  doing  this :  first,  through 
better  methods  of  care  and  feeding ;  and  second,  through 
the  use  of  breeding  animals  which  possess  improved 
"blood"  or  breeding.  In  this  chapter  the  breeding  side 
only  will  be  considered ;  first,  briefly  the  facts  of  reproduc- 
tion and  heredity  as  now  understood,  and  second,  the 
application  and  bearing  which  these  facts  have  on  the 
methods  and  practices  of  the  breeder. 

THE   LAW   OF   HEREDITY 

The  process  of  reproduction. 

Every  pig  has  his  origin  in  the  union  of  two  germ-cells, 
one  produced  by  the  sire  and  one  by  the  dam.  When  these 
two  germ-cells,  male  and  female,  unite,  a  new  individual 
is  born.  This  process  is  called  fertilization,  the  successful 
completion  of  which  marks  the  real  birth  of  the  individual. 

The  female  germ-cell  is  called  the  egg  or  ovum  (plural, 
ova),  and  the  male  germ-cell  the  sperm  or  spermatozoon 
(plural,  spermatozoa).  About  every  three  weeks  during 
the  breeding  seasons  the  sow,  if  vigorous  and  in  breeding 
condition,  produces  and  ripens  a  number  of  eggs,  usually 
from  five  to  twelve.  These  are  produced  or  secreted  by 
special  organs,  called  ovaries,  situated  in  the  region  of  the 

431 


432  Pork  Production 

loin  just  in  front  of  and  below  the  kidneys.  When  the 
eggs  are  ripened,  they  drop  into  the  upper  end  of  the  Fallo- 
pian tubes  and,  through  gravity,  finally  reach  the  womb 
or  uterus.  The  outward  manifestations  of  these  func- 
tional activities  are  called  "heat."  The  male  germ-cells 
or  sperms  are  secreted  by  the  testes,  the  essential  part  of 
the  testicles,  corresponding  in  function  to  the  ovaries  of 
the  sow.  For  every  egg  produced  by  the  sow,  the  boar 
produces  many  thousands  of  sperms.  The  number  of 
sperms  contained  in  a  cubic  millimeter  of  semen  from  a 
normal  boar  runs  from  6000  to  600,000,*  depending  on 
his  natural  vigor  and  the  distribution  of  the  services. 
The  average  number  produced  in  an  isolated  service  is 
about  450,000  to  a  cubic  millimeter.  At  this  rate  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  semen  would  contain  3,600,000  sperms. 

The  female  germ-cells  or  eggs  are  relatively  large  com- 
pared with  the  male  germ-cells  or  sperms.  Although  too 
small  to  be  visible  with  the  naked  eye,  the  eggs  are  several 
thousand  times  larger  than  the  sperms.  The  sperms  are 
extremely  minute,  measuring  TV  of  a  millimeter  in  length, 
which  would  require  that  482  be  laid  end  to  end  to  measure 
one  inch.  The  large  size  of  the  egg  compared  with  the 
sperm  does  not  mean  that  the  sow  contributes  a  larger 
hereditary  influence  to  the  pigs  than  does  the  boar,  but 
only  that  the  food  supply  (egg-yolk)  necessary  to  sustain 
the  life  of  the  fertilized  egg  until  conception  is  complete, 
is  carried  in  the  egg. 

The  shape  of  the  egg  is  spherical  like  a  ball,  while  the 
sperm  is  elongated,  consisting  of  a  head,  middle,  and  tail 
piece,  very  much  resembling  a  tadpole  in  appearance. 
While  the  egg  is  passive,  the  live  sperm  is  active  and  ca- 
pable of  locomotion.  This  is  accomplished  by  the  rapid 
1  L.  L.  Lewis,  Okla.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  96. 


Breeding  433 

vibrations  of  its  tail-like  appendage.  Fertilization,  or 
the  successful  union  of  the  egg  and  sperm,  is  thus  condi- 
tioned on  the  vigor  and  activity  of  the  sperm.  There  being 
in  a  normal  breeding  service  many  thousand  sperms  for 
each  egg  produced  by  the  sow,  the  sperms  which  are  most 
active  and  get  to  the  eggs  first  are  the  ones  which  fertilize 
them.  Only  one  sperm  ever  unites  with  an  egg  under 
normal  conditions. 

As  soon  as  the  eggs  are  fertilized,  they  attach  themselves 
to  the  lining  membrane  of  the  uterus  and  begin  to  absorb 
nourishment  through  its  walls.  Each  individual  egg 
grows  in  size  and  divides  into  two ;  each  in  turn  absorbs 
nourishment,  grows  in  size,  and  divides  into  two,  so  that 
where  at  first  there  was  only  the  single  fertilized  egg-cell, 
there  are  now  four  cells.  This  change,  called  cell  divi- 
sion, represents  the  beginning  of  embryonic  development. 
The  process  of  cell  division  continues  throughout  the 
gestation  period  and,  under  normal  conditions,  in  about 
113  days  so-called  birth  takes  place. 

"Like  begets  like.'' 

Within  each  cell  resides  the  hereditary  material  which  is 
being  passed  on  from  parent  to  offspring.  The  extraordi- 
nary fact  is  that  although  these  germ-cells  are  so  minute 
as  to  be  invisible,  yet  they  contain  every  particle  of  heredi- 
tary matter,  every  influence,  which  the  parent  contributes 
to  the  unborn  pig.  The  pig  inherits  nothing  which  he  does 
not  receive  in  these  two  cells,  one  supplied  by  the  sire  and 
one  by  the  dam. 

When  the  male  and  female  germ-cells  unite  to  form  the 
fertilized  egg,  there  is  consequently  a  union  of  the  heredi- 
tary qualities  contributed  by  the  boar  and  sow.  Since 
each  germ-cell  carries  a  full  set  of  characters,  it  follows  that 

2F 


434  Pork  Production 

the  fertilized  egg,  and  consequently  the  new-born  pig,  is 
double  or  dual  in  nature.  In  some  of  his  characters  the 
pig  may  resemble  the  sire  and  in  others  the  dam ;  in  some 
features  he  may  bear  an  unmistakable  resemblance  to  an 
ancestor  farther  back  in  his  pedigree.  Speaking  in  general 
terms,  it  may  be  said  that  the  hereditary  make-up  of  the 
pig,  his  color,  set  of  ear,  feeding  qualities,  vigor,  and  in 
fact  every  character,  is  the  result  of  the  combined  heredi- 
tary influence  of  his  entire  ancestry. 

This  resemblance  between  the  individual  pig  and  his 
ancestors  is  the  result  of  the  operation  of  the  law  of  hered- 
ity that  "like  tends  to  beget  like."  By  this  law  every 
living  thing  reproduces  after  its  own  kind  and  is  respon- 
sible for  the  faith  which  the  breeder  has  in  the  saying 
"blood  will  tell." 

Variations. 

Although  prepotent  breeding  animals  transmit  their 
likenesses  to  their  offspring  with  remarkable  faithfulness, 
it  is  also  true  that  many  and  wide  variations  occur  among 
individuals  of  even  identical  breeding  or  ancestry.  This  is 
well  illustrated  by  the  variations  common  among  the  indi- 
vidual pigs  of  the  same  litter,  raised  together  and  fed  from 
the  same  trough.  (See  Plate  XII.)  Although  heredity 
impresses  or  insures  a  strong  family  resemblance,  it  does 
not  operate  in  a  manner  to  exclude  differences  or  variations. 

Variations  among  individuals  of  the  same  or  identical 
ancestry  are  of  two  kinds;  first,  hereditary  variations; 
and  second,  variations  due  to  differences  in  the  conditions 
under  which  the  individuals  were  developed. 

Hereditary  variations  among  pigs  of  the  same  litter  are 
due  to  differences  in  the  hereditary  contents  of  the  germ- 
cells  from  which  the  individuals  developed.  They  are 


Breeding  *  435 

sometimes  called,  therefore,  germinal  variations.  The 
several  eggs  produced  by  the  sow  when  she  comes  in  heat 
are  not  alike,  especially  if  she  is  of  mixed  breeding.  As 
a  rule,  the  more  uniform  the  type  of  the  animals  in  the 
sow's  pedigree,  the  more  uniform  will  be  her  eggs  with 
respect  to  this  character;  the  more  dissimilar  the  types 
in  the  pedigree,  the  greater  will  be  the  germinal  variations 
among  the  eggs  produced.  In  the  same  way,  the  sperms 
produced  by  the  boar  vary  with  respect  to  any  and  all 
characters  to  the  same  degree  that  the  individuals  in  his 
ancestry  vary  in  these  same  characters.  When  ten  sperms 
unite  with  ten  eggs  in  the  process  of  fertilization  following 
breeding,  the  chances  for  variations  among  the  pigs  which 
develop  from  these  eggs  are  still  further  magnified.  If 
variations  are  reasonable  among  pigs  of  the  same  an- 
cestry, it  is  obvious  that  pigs  of  dissimilar  parentage,  for 
the  same  reasons  would  normally  present  even  greater 
variations. 

Variations  of  this  kind  are  of  fundamental  importance 
to  the  breeder  because  without  them  improvement  would 
be  impossible.  It  was  through  the  selection  of  the  desir- 
able hereditary  variations  and  their  correct  combination 
in  mating  that  all  breed  improvement  has  been  brought 
about.  Observations  of  the  breeder  have  shown  that  some 
variations  are  desirable  and  some  undesirable,  the  larger 
number  being  undesirable.  There  is  always  the  tendency 
in  pure-bred  herds,  therefore,  for  the  offspring  to  be  in- 
ferior to  their  parents.  In  other  words,  pigs  produced 
by  prize-winning  parents  are  not  so  good,  on  the  average, 
as  the  parents  themselves ;  a  few  may  be  better,  but  most 
are  inferior.  A  clear  appreciation  of  this  fact  on  the  part 
of  young  breeders  especially  will  insure  less  frequent  oc- 
currence of  disappointing  results. 


436  *  Pork  Production 

So-called  reversions  l  are  hereditary  variations  and  may 
be  defined  as  the  reappearance  of  a  character  in  an  indi- 
vidual which  was  not  present  or  shown  in  its  immediate 
ancestry,  but  which  was  present  in  two  or  more  of  the 
individuals  farther  back.  It  is  the  "cropping  up"  of  a 
character  which  has  been  "lost"  for  several  generations. 
The  appearance  of  spotted  pigs  among  Poland-Chinas 
bred  according  to  the  medium  or  old-type  standard  is  a 
good  instance  of  reverting  back  to  the  old  type,  or  the  oc- 
casional appearance  of  spots  of  red  hair  among  Berkshires. 
The  common  tendency  of  so-called  big-type  parents  to 
throw  pigs  of  the  small  fine-boned  type  is  another  instance 
of  the  same  tendency. 

In  Plate  XII  is  shown  a  white  sow  with  a  litter  of  pigs 
containing  one  black  one,  a  reversion.2  The  sire  of  these 
pigs  was  white  like  the  dam,  but  both  were  cross-bred,  the 
product  of  mating  a  Berkshire  and  Yorkshire.  In  this 
case  the  black  color  skipped  but  one  generation.  In 
Fig.  18  the  principle  of  all  variations  of  this  kind  is 
illustrated. 

This  diagram  supposes  a  Yorkshire  and  Berkshire  to  be 
mated.  All  the  pigs  from  this  first  cross  will  be  white  like 
the  Yorkshire  parent,  as  proved  by  actual  tests.  These 
cross-bred  white  pigs  are  then  mated  to  a  pure  Yorkshire 
boar  and  again  all  the  pigs  are  white.  If  these  white  pigs, 
which  in  breeding  'are  said  to  be  three-fourths  Yorkshire 
and  one-fourth  Berkshire,  are  mated  to  a  boar  of  the  same 
breeding,  as  illustrated  in  the  diagram,  the  chances  are 
that  some  of  the  pigs  will  be  black.  In  this  case  there  is 
a  "cropping  out"  of  a  character  which  was  not  present  in 

1  Sometimes  called  atavism.     So-called  "  sports  "  are  usually 
reversions. 

2  W.  W.  Smith:   American  Breeders'  Magazine,  p.  116. 


Breeding  437 

the  immediate  parents  or  grandparents,  but  which  was 
present  in  two  of  the  eight  grandparents. 

The  appearance  of  this  black  pig,  as  in  the  case  of  all 
reversions,  was  not  an  exception  to  the  law  of  heredity 
that  " like  begets  like" ;  it  was  rather  a  proof  or  guarantee 
of  it.  Although  the  cross-bred  pigs  produced  by  the  first 
Yorkshire-Berkshire  mating  were  all  white,  so  far  as  their 
breeding  or  hereditary  qualities  were  concerned  they 

OYork. 

York.      J  fO  Yorkshire 


Berkshire 


fO  York. 
York.  fO  Yorkshire 


X  Berk. 

Berkshire 

FIG.   18.  —  Illustrating  the  principle  of  reversions. 

were  as  much  black  as  white.  The  black  did  not  show 
in  the  bodies  of  these  cross-bred  pigs  because  the  white 
dominated  over  it.  The  black,  in  other  words,  was  present 
in  a  hidden  or  latent  condition,  illustrated  in  the  diagram 
by  a  dash  below  the  circle.  It  was  also  present  in  some 
of  the  pigs  in  the  next  generation,  so  that  in  the  succeeding 
generation  when  two  of  these  white  pigs,  each  with  black 
latent,  were  bred  together  some  of  the  pigs  were  black. 
What  is  true  of  color  is  true  also  of  the  hundreds  of  other 


438  Pork  Production 

characters  making  up  the  individual.  A  character  may 
lie  latent,  or  be  covered  up  as  it  were,  for  five,  ten,  or  any 
number  of  generations  and  then  make  its  appearance. 
When  two  animals  are  mated  each  of  which  have  the  same 
character  latent,  some  of  the  offspring  will  show  the  char- 
acter developed.  Reversion,  in  other  words,  is  merely 
the  expression  of  a  character  which  was  always  present  in 
some  of  the  ancestors,  but  which  was  latent  or  not  devel- 
oped. 

Incidentally  these  facts  make  plain  the  fundamental 
and  important  principle  that  the  individual  appearance 
of  an  animal  only  partially  or  imperfectly  represents  his 
breeding  possibilities.  In  other  words,  the  individuality 
of  an  animal  is  not  altogether  a  safe  criterion  of  his  breed- 
ing ability.  It  also  explains  why  two  individuals  with 
exactly  the  same  pedigree  may  differ  materially  in  breeding 
qualities. 

The  older  a  breed,  or  the  more  carefully  it  has  been  bred 
within  certain  lines,  the  fewer  will  be  the  number  of  latent 
characters  present.  Reversions  or  the  appearance  of  the 
unexpected  become  less  frequent,  therefore,  in  old  well- 
established  herds  than  in  those  in  which  out-crossing  or 
cross-breeding  has  been  resorted  to.  The  selection  of 
breeding  stock  within  rather  definite  and  narrow  limits 
tends  ultimately  to  reduce  reversions,  while  out-crossing 
has  the  opposite  effect  of  bringing  about  the  conditions 
which  result  in  variations  and  so-called  reversions. 

The  second  kind  of  variations  are  those  which  result 
from  differences  in  the  conditions  under  which  the  indi- 
viduals have  been  developed.  They  are  sometimes  called 
acquired  characters.  Variations  of  size  and  vigor  which 
result  from  differences  of  feeding  and  care  are  most  com- 
mon. Two  pigs  may  have  an  inheritance  equally  good, 


Breeding  439 

but  if  one  is  raised  in  a  dry  lot  on  corn  and  water,  while 
the  other  has  the  advantage  of  balanced  rations,  succulent 
feeds,  and  plenty  of  exercise,  there  will  be  a  marked  differ- 
ence between  them  at  maturity.  Likewise,  pigs  from  well- 
developed  parents  of  the  best  of  breeding,  if  not  properly 
developed,  will  show  a  wide  variation  from  their  sire  and 
dam.  These  are  not  due  to  any  difference  in  inheritance, 
but  rather  to  the  fact  that  in  one  case  the  hereditary  pos- 
sibilities had  the  chance  to  develop,  while  in  the  other  they 
did  not  have  the  opportunity.  In  order  to  produce  good 
hogs,  therefore,  the  breeder  must  not  only  produce  pigs 
which  possess  the  proper  inheritance,  but  he  must  also  give 
them  the  conditions  which  will  promote  and  make  possible 
the  full  development  of  these  hereditary  possibilities.  In 
the  practical  sense,  the  breeder  who  is  not  a  good  feeder 
cannot  succeed. 

Variations  due  to  differences  in  feeding  and  management, 
however,  are  not  transmitted  to  succeeding  generations. 
The  effect  of  good  development  on  the  individual  does  not 
improve  or  change  in  any  way  the  hereditary  content  of 
his  germ-cells,  but  is  temporary  and  limited  to  the  individ- 
ual alone.  The  importance  of  good  feeding  in  the  develop- 
ment of  a  young  boar  is  not  that  he  may  be  able  to  get 
pigs  which  have  more  size  and  better  feeding  qualities, 
but  chiefly  to  test  his  own  hereditary  possibility  in  this 
particular.  Incidentally  he  will  be  a  more  vigorous 
breeder  and  possess  an  individuality  which  is  an  asset 
to  the  appearance  of  the  herd.  A  boar  which  has  the 
natural  ability  to  respond  to  good  feeding  is  more  certain 
to  get  pigs  of  this  kind  than  one  which  did  not  inherit  this 
capacity.  Good  development  of  breeding  stock  is  im- 
portant, therefore,  because  it  is  an  aid  to  more  accurate 
selection. 


440  Pork  Production 

Prepotency. 

As  understood  by  the  breeder,  prepotency  is  the  ability 
of  an  animal  to  impress  on  his  offspring  his  own  charac- 
teristics to  the  exclusion  of  those  of  the  other  parent.  It 
is  the  ability  of  an  individual  to  "  breed  on."  Because  the 
sire  is  more  depended  on  than  is  the  dam  in  live-stock  im- 
provement, prepotency  is  sought  in  the  sire  rather  than  in 
the  dam.  A  prepotent  sire  is  the  cornerstone  of  all  herd 
improvement.  Prepotency  is  desirable  in  the  sire  used 
for  the  production  of  grade  stock  and  of  supreme  impor- 
tance in  the  head  of  a  pure-bred  herd. 

Observations  show  that  prepotent  animals  are  usually 
the  product  of  rather  close  breeding,  or,  in  other  words, 
the  result  of  selecting  animals  within  certain  clearly  de- 
fined limits  of  type  and  breeding.  As  shown  by  experi- 
mental studies,  the  result  of  such  selection  is  that  the 
germ-cells  produced  by  the  boar  or  sow  will  be  more  alike 
in  their  hereditary  qualities  and,  further,  that  there  will 
be  fewer  differences  between  the  hereditary  qualities  of 
the  sperms  on  the  one  hand  and  the  eggs  on  the  other. 
Pigs  resulting  from  the  union  of  such  germ-cells  will  be 
prepotent  when  mated  with  individuals  the  result  of  di- 
verse germ-cells  the  product  of  mixed  breeding.  Line  and 
in-breeding  have  the  practical  effect,  therefore,  of  intensify- 
ing the  hereditary  qualities  and  hence  of  securing  prepo- 
tency in  animals  so  bred.  Scrub  animals  which  are  the 
result  of  scrub  ancestry  are  prepotent  in  the  qualities  of 
the  scrub,  just  as  superior  specimens  are  prepotent  in  their 
desirable  characters. 

Relative  influence  of  the  sire  and  dam. 

As  a  general  rule,  it  may  be  said  that  the  sire  and  dam 
are  equal  in  the  influence  which  each  exerts  on  the  charac- 


Breeding  441 

teristics  of  the  offspring.  That  is,  so  far  as  sex  is  concerned, 
they  are  equal  from  the  standpoint  of  heredity.  As  has 
been  seen,  the  sire  contributes  a  germ-cell  to  the  fertilized 
egg,  and  the  dam  furnishes  a  germ-cell.  Furthermore, 
each  one  of  these  germ-cells  contains  a  complete  set  of 
characters  for  the  new  individual.  Some  of  the  characters 
of  the  sire  may  dominate  those  of  the  dam,  and  with  other 
characters  the  reverse  may  be  the  case.  With  many  char- 
acters, the  result  is  an  apparent  blend,  or  intermediate 
between  the  sire  on  the  one  hand  and  the  dam  on  the  other. 
The  question  of  whether  the  black  of  the  boar  will  domi- 
nate the  white  of  the  sow  is  not  a  matter  of  sex,  but  of 
the  character.  If  one  parent  is  better  bred  than  the  other, 
it  will  for  this  reason  be  more  prepotent,  independent  of 
any  influence  of  sex.  The  old  theory  that  the  outside  and 
external  characteristics  are  determined  by  the  sire  and  the 
inside  or  functional  activities  by  the  dam  has  long  since 
been  exploded. 

SYSTEMS   OF   BREEDING 

Up-grading. 

The  quickest,  cheapest,  and  surest  method  of  live-stock 
improvement  is  up-grading.  It  is  the  only  method 
adapted  to  those  farms  which  do  not  already  have  pure- 
bred, or  pedigreed  herds.  By  up-grading  is  meant  the 
mating  of  the  common  grade  sows  of  the  farm  with  a  pure- 
bred boar,  continuously  generation  after  generation.  In 
effect  it  means  the  elimination  of  the  scrub  or  grade  boar. 
Successful  up-grading  implies  that  the  pure-bred  boar 
selected  be  a  good  individual  and  that  only  the  best  gilts 
of  each  pig  crop  be  retained  for  breeding  purposes. 

As  illustrated  in  Fig.  19,  the  rate  of  improvement  in  up- 
grading is  rapid  and  its  results  certain.  The  first  cross 


442 


Pork  Production 


with  a  pure-bred  sire  produces  pigs  which  are  one-half 
pure.  When  the  gilts  of  this  litter  are  mated  with  a  pure- 
bred  sire,  the  result  is  a  litter  three-fourths  pure  in  breed- 
ing. The  third  top  cross  produces  pigs  seven-eighths 
pure-bred,  or  very  high  grades  and  the  next  cross  fifteen- 
sixteenths  pure.  For  feeding  and  market  purposes,  the 
high-grade  pig  is  practically  the  equal  of  the  pure-bred. 


FIG. 


19.  —  Showing  rate  of  improvement  in  up-grading  and  degree  of 
improvement  effected  in  each  generation. 


For  breeding  purposes,  however,  the  high  grade,  although 
good  in  individuality,  is  unreliable  and  disappointing. 

As  illustrated  by  the  diagram,  improvement  in  the  up- 
grading process  is  at  first  rapid  and  then  more  slow  with 
each  succeeding  generation.  The  degree  of  improvement 
effected  by  the  first  cross  with  the  pure-bred  sire  is  twice 
as  great  as  that  in  the  second  generation  ;  and  in  the  third 
generation  the  degree  of  improvement  is  only  one-half 
that  in  the  second.  Improvement  in  succeeding  genera- 
tions becomes  more  and  more  imperceptible  as  the  high- 


Breeding  443 

grade  females  approach  in  merit  and  breeding  the  pure- 
bred sires  employed.  This  illustration  makes  plain  the 
important  principle  that  the  more  nearly  a  herd  approaches 
in  excellence  the  ideal,  the  more  difficult  does  further  im- 
provement become.  It  is  easy  to  improve  a  mediocre 
herd,  but  extremely  difficult  to  better  or  even  maintain 
a  highly  improved  one. 

Up-grading  is  economical  because  the  sire  mates  with 
the  entire  female  herd  and  his  influence  consequently  ex- 
tends to  the  entire  pig  crop.  The  influence  of  the  sow, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  limited  to  a  few.  Due  to  the  fact  that 
the  increased  cost  of  the  pure-bred  boar  over  the  scrub 
or  grade  boar  is  thus  distributed  among  a  very  large  num- 
ber of  pigs,  the  cost  of  the  improvement  resulting  is  ex- 
tremely low. 

Cross-breeding. 

By  cross-breeding  is  generally  understood  the  mating 
of  two  pure-bred  individuals  which  belong  to  different 
breeds,  as  the  use  of  a  Poland-China  boar  on  Yorkshire 
sows,  or  a  Berkshire  boar  on  Duroc-Jersey  sows.  The 
mating  of  a  pure-bred  boar  of  one  breed  to  grade  sows  of 
another  breed  is  also  referred  to  as  cross-breeding.  Funda- 
mentally, cross-breeding  means  the  mating  of  individuals 
of  dissimilar  type  or  breeding.  In  this  sense  it  is  correct 
to  speak  of  crossing  one  family  or  strain  with  another 
family  or  strain  of  the  same  breed. 

Experiments  and  observations  show  that  cross-breed- 
ing usually  has  the  effect  of  slightly  increasing  vigor  and 
feeding  qualities.  Since  these  qualities  are  fundamental 
in  the  profitable  production  of  market  animals,  the  reason 
for  the  practice  of  this  system  of  mating  is  apparent. 
Another  possible  advantage  in  the  production  of  market 


444  Pork  Production 

hogs  is  the  opportunity  afforded  of  selecting  the  sows  from 
a  breed  or  of  a  type  known  to  be  unusually  prolific  and 
heavy  milkers  and  the  use  on  these  of  a  boar  possessing 
the  type  which  will  insure  by  the  cross  sufficient  early 
maturity  and  market  qualities  in  the  pigs  produced. 

But  even  from  the  standpoint  of  the  farmer  who  is 
producing  only  grade  or  market  hogs,  cross-breeding 
presents  certain  difficulties  and  disadvantages.  It  neces- 
sitates the  maintenance  of  two  distinct  herds,  a  small  one 
for  the  production  of  the  brood  sows  and  a  larger  herd 
made  up  of  the  cross-bred  feeder  pigs.  A  second  and  more 
important  objection  to  cross-breeding  as  usually  conducted 
is  the  tendency  to  retain  for  breeding  purposes  some  of  the 
cross-bred  pigs.  The  temptation  to  do  this  is  strong,  with 
the  usual  result  that  in  a  very  short  time  the  herd  presents 
all  varieties  of  color  and  type. 

The  reason  why  cross-breeding  cannot  be  generally 
recommended  is  not  so  much  from  any  evil  in  the  practice 
itself  when  systematically  pursued,  but  rather  because 
when  once  begun  it  too  frequently  degenerates  into  mixed 
and  indiscriminate  mating  with  its  attendant  evils.  It 
should  also  be  understood  that  even  at  its  best,  cross-breed- 
ing is  not  a  method  of  live-stock  improvement.  Its  sole 
purpose  is  to  produce  a  more  profitable  type  of  market 
animal  through  the  use  of  the  improved  blood  of  two  dis- 
tinct breeds  or  types. 

Although  the  crossing  of  two  distinct  and  carefully 
bred  strains  of  the  same  breed  has  a  reinvigorating  effect 
on  the  pigs  so  produced,  it  finally  results  in  a  splitting  up 
of  type  and  the  production  of  reversions  in  later  genera- 
tions. This  result  explains  why  the  breeder  of  pedigreed 
hogs  is  always  loath  to  introduce  into  his  carefully  bred 
herd  blood  from  some  unrelated  strain.  The  surest  way 


Breeding 


445 


of  destroying  a  type  which  has  required  many  years  of 
patient  effort  to  build  up  is  to  make  a  radical  out-cross. 
When  outside  blood  is  necessary  in  order  to  avoid  the 
possible  evils  of  in-breeding,  experience  shows  that  it 
should  be  introduced  in  a  rather  dilute  form,  that  is,  by 
selecting  a  sire  from  some  closely  related  strain. 

In-breeding. 

In  principle,  in-breeding  is  the  opposite  of  cross-breed- 
ing. It  means  the  mating  of  individuals  more  or  less 
closely  related.  If  the  individuals  are  as  closely  related 

OHIO  CHIEF 


D.  B's  Dutchess 

76842 


HIGH  CHIEF 
13423 


8727 


ARLIE  M. 
28520 


f  JOHN'S  OHIO 
CHIEF 
17483 


OHIO  CHIEF 

8727 


WATSON'S 
DUTCHESS 


MAYWOOD  S.  4th 
3240 

as  full  brother  or  sister,  half  brother  and  sister,  first 
cousins,  sire  and  daughter,  or  dam  and  son,  it  is  called 
close  in-breeding  or  incestuous  breeding.  Practically 
all  in-breeding  takes  the  form  of  line-breeding.  Line- 
bred  pedigrees  show  the  repeated  introduction  of  the  blood 


446 


Pork  Production 


of  some  one  animal.  The  result  is  that  it  emphasizes 
and  intensifies  the  influence  of  a  single  individual,  or  of 
the  group  of  individuals  just  back  of  him  in  the  pedigree. 

A  good  example  of  line-breeding  frequently  seen  is 
represented  in  the  pedigree  of  D.  B's  Dutchess  76842, 
as  shown  in  the  previous  diagram.  In  this  case  a  son 
of  Ohio  Chief  was  mated  with  a  granddaughter  of  Ohio 
Chief. 

In  the  accompanying  diagram  is  the  pedigree  of  Baron 
Duke  IV  33446,  which  shows  a  little  closer  line-breeding 
than  the  first  pedigree.  In  this  instance  a  sow  was  mated 
to  her  own  grand-sire.  The  relationship  is  even  more 
close  than  this,  for  Handsome  Duke  was  a  half  brother 
to  Longfellow,  and  Dora  Lee  was  a  full  sister. 


BARON  LEE  IV 
33446 


LONGFELLOW 
16835 


LADY  LEE  VII 
25107 


MODEL  DUKE 


LONGFELLOW 
16835 


EMMA  LEE 


HANDSOME 
DUKE 


DORA  LEE 


The  question  of  whether  in-breeding  is  safe  and  desirable 
must  be  judged  by  the  results.     Experience  has  shown 


Breeding  447 

that  a  sire  which  is  in-bred  has  his  breeding  qualities 
intensified,  that  he  is  more  prepotent  in  impressing  him- 
self on  his  offspring,  that  his  get  are  more  uniform,  and  the 
character  of  his  breeding  can  be  more  surely  predicted. 
There  is  no  question  regarding  the  supreme  value  of 
these  things  in  a  sire.  The  practical  question  is  whether 
this  method  of  mating  can  be  followed  without  grave 
danger  of  reducing  fertility  and  undermining  vigor  and 
constitution.  If  it  cannot,  uniform  prepotent  breeding 
qualities  obtained  by  in-breeding  are  bought,  certainly, 
at  too  great  a  cost. 

The  methods  followed  by  the  constructive  breeders  of 
the  past  will  throw  light  on  this  problem.  Bake  well,  who 
was  our  first  great  breeder  and  teacher,  mated  "  the  best 
to  the  best,"  it  is  said,  regardless  of  relationship.  He 
succeeded  in  effecting  such  wonderful  improvement  in 
the  meat  and  early  maturing  qualities  of  his  Longhorn 
cattle  and  Leicester  sheep  that  his  method  was  hailed 
as  the  new  discovery  in  breeding.  Cruickshank  was  a 
great  constructive  breeder.  From  the  time  Champion 
of  England  was  produced,  his  method  was  that  of  concen- 
trating, intensifying,  and  fixing  in  his  herd  the  blood  of 
this  great  bull.  Collings  brothers,  the  Booths,  and 
Bates  did  not  hesitate  to  in-breed  when  the  animals 
were  strong  and  suited  to  one  another.  Likewise,  the 
founders  of  the  Aberdeen-Angus  and  Hereford  breeds 
used  in-breeding  to  a  very  marked  degree.  The  fact  is 
that  practically  every  early  breeder  who  achieved  eminence 
practiced  in-breeding  to  a  greater  or  less  degree.  The 
beginning  foundations  of  practically  all  our  improved 
breeds  of  live-stock  are  consequently  narrow  rather  than 
broad.  Gentry  of  Berkshire  fame  is  a  recent  breeder 
whose  success  no  doubt  is  in  part  the  result  of  the  careful 


448  Pork  Production 

mating  of  individuals  descending  from  the  great  Long- 
fellow 16835. 

It  would  be  a  mistake,  however,  not  to  set  down  the 
observation  that  practically  every  one  of  these  breeders 
recognized  and  experienced  the  possible  evils  which  lay 
hidden  in  the  system.  Practically  every  one  who  success- 
fully used  in-breeding  to  fix  type  and  establish  uniformity 
came  to  the  point  in  his  experience  where  he  clearly  saw 
the  necessity  of  introducing  fresh  blood,  or,  in  other 
words,  of  making  an  out-cross.  This  was  apparent  in  a 
tendency  towards  sterility  and  a  lack  of  vigor  and  con- 
stitution. Further,  the  observations  of  everyday  experi- 
ence furnished  some  pertinent  facts  in  this  connection. 
A  gilt  produces  a  litter  of  pigs  by  her  own  sire  and 
the  usual  result  is  a  large  proportion  of  runts,  with 
possibly  one  or  two  of  them  half  male  and  half  female 
(hermaphrodites).  Some  of  the  pigs,  on  the  other  hand, 
may  have  escaped  apparent  injury  and  are  unusually 
thrifty  and  vigorous.  Such  extremely  close  breeding 
almost  invariably  has  the  effect  of  greatly  reducing  the 
vigor  of  pigs. 

If  the  experiences  of  the  early  constructive  breeders 
are  put  together,  the  general  observations  of  present-day 
breeders,  and  the  results  of  scientifically  planned  breeding 
experiments  with  small  animals  like  rats,  mice,  guinea 
pigs,  and  insects,  the  result  will  support  the  following 
conclusions : 

1.  In-breeding  has  the  effect  of  simplifying  and  puri- 
fying the  hereditary  or  breeding  qualities  of  an  individual, 
whether  good  or  bad.  This  it  does  by  bringing  into 
expression  characters  which  were  once  latent  or  hidden, 
thus  enabling  the  breeder  to  eliminate  from  the  herd 
those  animals  which  show  undesirable  reversions.  It  is 


Breeding  449 

an  important  vehicle,  therefore,  in  obtaining  concen- 
tration of  blood  and  fixity  of  type.  The  extensive  prac- 
tice of  in-breeding  in  the  early  formation  of  our  present 
breeds  was  justified  by  this  fact. 

2.  When   in-breeding   is   practiced    promiscuously,    it 
almost  inevitably  results  in  reduced  vigor  and  impaired 
fertility.     The  closer  the  relationship,  the  quicker   and 
more  certain  will  these  results  follow.     Even  when  used 
mildly  and  with  the  greatest  skill  and  caution,  the  prob- 
abilities are  that  some  weakness  will  ultimately  result  if 
long  continued. 

3.  The  conditions  are  not  existent  to-day  which  justify 
in-breeding  as  they  were  during  the  formative  period  of 
the  breeds'  development.     Then  there  was  dissimilarity 
of  type  and  ancestry,  while  now  there  is  uniformity  of 
type  and  a  breed  or  blood  relationship  more  or  less  close 
among  all  the  individuals  of  a  breed.     The  first  breeders 
often  could  not  find  as  good  stock  outside  their  own  herds 
as  they  had  in  them,  and  hence  used  sires  of  their  own 
breeding.     No^w,  the  opportunity  for  selection  is  much 
broader  and   the  necessity  for  using  a  closely  related 
sire  is  practically  eliminated.     Furthermore,  present-day 
stock  is  probably  less  immune  from  the  possible  evils  of 
in-breeding  than  the  foundation  stocks,  because  a  certain 
amount   of  in-breeding  has  already  been   practiced   in 
every  breed. 

PRINCIPLES   IN  THE   SELECTION   OF   BREEDING   STOCK 

There  are  three  ways  of  judging  an  animal's  ability 
as  a  breeder :   first,  by  his  individuality ;    second,  by  his 
pedigree  or  breeding ;  and  third,  by  his  actual  performance 
record  as  a  breeder. 
2  a 


450  Pork  Production 

Individuality. 

Individuality  is  more  generally  depended  on  in  estimating 
the  future  breeding  value  of  a  boar  or  sow.  If  the  animal 
is  too  young  to  have  mature  offspring  and  his  pedigree  or 
breeding  is  unknown,  it  is  the  sole  dependence  in  selection. 
By  individuality  is  meant  everything  about  the  animal 
which  can  be  seen  or  judged,  such  as  size,  conformation, 
feet  and  legs,  breed  type  features,  and  the  like.  (See 
Chapter  XVII.)  Show-ring  judging  is  based  entirely  on 
individuality. 

That  the  merit  of  an  animal  in  individuality  is  an  indi- 
cation of  his  probable  value  as  a  breeder  is  proved  by  the 
experience  and  observations  of  every  breeder.  This  is 
another  way  of  saying  that  like  tends  to  produce  like. 
It  is  the  maxim  on  which  all  breed  development  has  been 
built.  Of  two  animals  raised  under  the  same  conditions, 
one  good  in  individuality  and  one  inferior,  the  better 
one  almost  invariably  proves  the  better  producer.  Some- 
times, however,  the  reverse  is  true.  The  individuality  of 
an  animal  is  the  product  of  his  inheritance  plus  his  oppor- 
tunities for  development.  He  may  be  well  bred  but 
poorly  fed,  in  which  case  he  would  probably  prove  a 
better  breeder  than  another  which  was  ordinary  in  breed- 
ing but  which  had  every  advantage  for  full  develop- 
ment. However,  this  is  the  exception  and  not  the 
rule. 

The  ultimate  injury  to  a  breed  through  the  pursuit  by 
breeders  of  certain  non-essentials  and  fads  of  color  or 
family  name,  is  due  to  the  fact  that  under  these  conditions 
individuality  is  often  ignored.  No  matter  how  attrac- 
tive the  pedigree  in  real  merit,  if  the  individuality  is 
below  standard  he  should  be  rejected.  A  good  pedigree 
is  of  the  highest  value  only  when  there  is  good  individual- 


Breeding 


451 


ity  to  back  it  up.     The  real  test  of  breeding  is  its  ability 
to  produce  good  individuals. 


Pedigree. 

A  pedigree  is  a  record  or  statement  of  an  animal's 
ancestry.  In  addition  to  the  name  and  herd-book  number 
of  each  animal,  usually  it  includes  also  a  statement  of  the 
date  of  birth  with  name  and  address  of  the  breeder.  It 
may  extend  back  to  the  beginning  of  the  breed's  recorded 
history,  although  usually  it  includes  only  the  first  three 
or  four  generations  immediately  back  of  the  individual. 

The  most  practical  way  of  writing  a  pedigree  is  accord- 
ing to  the  bracket  form  illustrated  in  the  following 
diagram : 


GIANT  BUSTER  90455 
BredbyW.C.  Disher, 

New  Eston,  Ohio 
Owned    by    Williams 

&  Spruling,  Bryant, 

Ind.,    and   Taylor- 

ville,  111. 


DISHER'S  GIANT 

89271 

Bred   by  J.    W. 

Pfander  &  Sons, 

Clarinda,  la. 


BIG  LIL 

195342  (N.) 
186174  (S.) 


BIG  BEN  61935  (S.) 
Bred   by   Chas.    Her- 
ring,        Columbus, 
Neb. 


MAMMOTH  GIANTESS 
EQUAL  152839  (S.) 

Bred  by  J.  W.  Pfan- 
der &  Sons,  Cla- 
rinda, la. 


BIG    WONDER    72131 
Bred  by  Wm.  S.  Pow- 
ell, Moline,  Kans. 


LADY  LUNKER 

182572 
Wm.  Lentz,  Ankeny, 

la. 


SMOOTH     PRICE 
55487  (S.) 


MOLLIE    JONES 
5th  (133595) 

LONG  KING'S 
EQUAL 
53730  (S.) 


MAMMOTH 
GIANTESS   3d 
120027 

WONDER   41551 
(S.) 


LADY  MONARCH 
158410 


BIG  CROW 
162503  (A.) 


BLACK  NIGHT 
394520  (A.) 


452  Pork  Production 

This  method  of  writing  a  pedigree  has  the  merit  of 
clearly  showing  all  the  blood  lines  and  the  correct  rela- 
tion of  these  lines  and  individuals.  It  is  always  the 
custom  to  place  the  name  of  the  sire  at  the  top  of  the 
bracket  and  the  name  of  the  dam  at  the  bottom.  In 
reading  the  pedigree  the  following  method  is  usually 
followed :  Giant  Buster  was  by  Disher's  Giant  and  out 
of  Big  Lil  by  Big  Wonder.  The  second  dam  was  Lady 
Lunker  by  Big  Crow.  Disher's  Giant  was  by  Big  Ben 
and  out  of  Mammoth  Giantess'  Equal  by  Long  King's 
Equal,  and  so  on. 

To  judge  accurately  the  value  of  the  breeding  shown  in 
a  pedigree,  it  is  essential  that  one  have  a  knowledge  of  the 
individual  animals  in  the  pedigree.  The  ability  to  read 
a  pedigree  intelligently  comes,  therefore,  only  after 
years  of  close  study  of  breed  history,  involving  an 
intimate  acquaintance  with  the  leading  breeders  and 
a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  records  of  the  show  and 
sale  rings. 

From  a  breed  or  herd  improvement  standpoint,  a  pedi- 
gree is  good  or  bad  according  as  the  individuals  in  it  are 
good  or  bad.  If  the  immediate  parents  are  good  individ- 
uals and  the  grandparents  are  uniformly  good,  there  is 
sufficient  reason  for  calling  it  a  good  pedigree.  If  to  this 
good  individuals  in  the  third  and  fourth  generations  are 
added,  there  is  a  still  stronger  guarantee  of  merit.  Uni- 
formity of  type  among  the  individuals  of  a  pedigree  is 
also  of  great  importance,  since  it  stands  for  similarity 
of  blood  and  is  a  guarantee  of  prepotency  in  the  animal 
whose  pedigree  is  being  studied.  To  these  two  points,  a 
third  should  be  added,  the  records  of  the  individuals  as 
breeders  and  producers.  If  the  individuals  in  a  pedigree 
have  the  ability  to  produce  favorable  offspring  as  well 


Breeding  453 

as  being  good  themselves,  a  guarantee  of  future  perform^ 
ance  is  practically  certain. 

In  judging  a  boar  or  sow's  value  as  a  prospective  breeder, 
the  pedigree  stands  for  the  individual's  heredity  or  in- 
heritance. If  a  full  and  complete  knowledge  of  the 
pedigree  is  possible,  and  this  is  rare,  the  importance  to  be 
attached  to  it  should  be  about  equal  to  that  given  to  the 
individuality  of  the  animal.  In  buying  or  selecting  ani- 
mals for  the  herd,  therefore,  one  should  insist  on  the 
combination  of  good  individuality  with  good  pedigrees 
behind  them.  If  the  individual  under  consideration  is 
of  the  best  type  and  he  has  in  addition  a  good  pedigree, 
there  is  reason  to  believe  that  he  will  be  a  satisfactory 
producer. 

Performance. 

The  value  of  an  animal  as  a  breeder  is  indicated  by 
his  individuality  and  pedigree ;  but  the  only  real  and  final 
test  is  actual  breeding  performance.  For  this  reason, 
tested  sires  are  more  reliable  than  those  of  immature  age. 
A  fuller  appreciation  of  this  fact  will  prevent  further 
sacrifice  of  proven  boars  just  approaching  the  period  of 
their  greatest  usefulness.  It  will  also  operate  against 
unreasonable  discrimination  by  the  buyer  in  favor  of  the 
pig  and  consequently  result  in  a  freer  use  of  the  knife. 
Brood  sows  which  have  demonstrated  their  ability  as 
breeders  should  not  be  sacrificed  in  favor  of  younger  sows, 
regardless  of  the  more  attractive  appearance  of  the  gilt. 
The  good  producer  should  maintain  her  position  in  the 
herd  so  long  as  there  are  no  better  ones,  according  to  the 
same  standard,  to  take  her  place.  Herd  selection  of 
brood  sows  should  be  based  on  performance  first  and  looks 
last.  (See  Chapter  IV,  page  89.) 


454  Pork  Production 

FUNDAMENTAL  IDEALS  IN  BREED  OR  HERD  IMPROVE- 
MENT 

The  measure  of  a  breed's  standing  is  its  popularity 
with  the  practical  man  who  is  producing  pork  for  market. 
The  test  of  a  breed's  efficiency,  in  other  words,  is  the  per- 
formance it  gives  in  the  hands  of  the  farmer.  This  means 
that  no  breed  can  survive  the  competition  whose  type 
is  not  the  utility  type  or  whose  standards  of  selection  are 
based  more  on  some  fad  of  color,  type  or  pedigree  than 
on  real  individual  merit.  The  pedigree  breeder's  ideal 
should  be  based  on  the  farmer's  ideal.  The  question 
of  the  ideal  farmer's  hog  is  considered  in  the  following 
paragraphs. 

1 .  In  the  first  place,  the  ideal  breed  or  herd  of  hogs  must 
have  brood  sows  capable  of  regularly  producing  large 
even  litters;  i.e.,  the  sows  must  be  prolific.  Prolific 
breeding  quality  is  probably  the  most  valuable  trait  for 
any  breed.  To  a  very  large  extent  it  is  true  that  a  breed  is 
popular  or  unpopular  according  as  the  sows  are  prolific 
or  not.  The  question  then  is,  how  can  regular  prolific 
breeding  traits  be  developed  or  maintained  in  a  herd. 

The  first  rule  is  to  keep  in  the  breeding  herd  only  those 
sows  which  have  demonstrated  by  actual  performance 
their  ability  to  produce  and  raise  good  litters.  The 
policy  of  rigorous  culling  on  the  basis  of  breeding  per- 
formance should  be  one  of  the  rules  of  practice  in  every 
pure-bred  and  grade  herd.  To  follow  this  rule  without 
regard  to  pedigree,  show-ring  attainments,  or  money 
cost,  requires  on  the  part  of  the  breeder  nerve  and  a  high 
sense  of  his  responsibility. 

The  second  rule  which  will  guarantee  improvement  in 
the  size  of  the  litters  is  to  be  careful  to  select  the  gilts 


Breeding  455 

which  are  to  be  retained  for  breeding  from  the  large  litters 
only.  If  this  practice  is  followed  year  after  year,  the 
breeding  average  will  be  maintained  or  improved.  The 
sows  which  produce  the  large  litters,  which  milk  down 
and  become  thin  during  the  nursing  period,  are  the  kind 
which  transmit  prolific  breeding  qualities  to  their  pigs. 

The  third  point  to  which  attention  should  be  given 
is  always  to  prefer  the  boar  which  is  from  a  large  litter 
and  prolific  strain.  The  sire  is  supposed  to  influence 
equally  with  the  dam  the  ability  of  the  gilt  to  produce 
large  litters.  Since  the  size  of  the  litter  is  limited  by  the 
number  of  eggs  produced  by  the  dam,  the  boar  to  which 
the  sow  is  mated  is  believed  to  have  no  influence  on  the 
size  of  the  resulting  litter,  provided  he  is  vigorous  (see 
Chapter  V).  Although  this  is  true,  the  pig-producing 
ability  of  the  sow  pigs  in  this  litter  will  be  as  much  in- 
fluenced by  the  sire  as  by  the  dam. 

2.  In  addition  to  regular  prolific  breeding  qualities, 
the  ideal  farmer's  hog  must  have  capacity  for  making 
rapid  growth.  The  efficiency  of  any  breed  as  pork-pro- 
ducers is  largely  determined  by  the  ability  of  the  pigs 
to  make  rapid  gains  in  the  feed  yard.  Also,  rapid  gains 
usually  mean  economical  ones. 

The  constitution  and  feeding  capacity  of  a  herd  can  be 
improved  by  giving  more  attention  to  the  matter  of  size 
and  feeding  quality  in  the  stock  selected  for  breeding 
purposes.  Too  much  attention  was  devoted  in  the  past 
to  quality  and  refinement  and  not  enough  to  vigor  and 
growthiness.  This  was  particularly  true  ten  years  ago. 
The  result  was  a  hog  possessing  extraordinary  ability 
to  fatten  at  an  early  age,  but  at  a  sacrifice  of  size  and 
gaining  capacity.  Quality  is  desirable  and  necessary, 
but  when  quality  is  not  combined  with  substance  it  does 


456  Pork  Production 

not  greatly  add  to  the  utility  value  of  the  pigs.  The 
present  popularity  of  the  so-called  big  types  is  the  natural 
result  of  this  demand  on  the  part  of  the  feeder. 

The  second  point  of  importance  in  maintaining  feeding 
qualities  and  growthiness  in  hogs  is  to  select  only  those 
gilts  which  are  large  for  their  age  and  which  give  promise 
by  their  type  or  conformation  of  developing  sufficient  size 
at  maturity.  This  means  that  the  short,  low-set,  fine- 
boned  kind  must  be  shunned.  The  gilts  which  appear 
leggy?  which  are  long-sided,  strong-backed,  and  set  on 
straight  legs  of  ample  bone  usually  develop  well  and  im- 
prove with  age. 

3.  The  third  important  quality  which  the  ideal  breed 
or  herd  of  hogs  must  possess  is  the  ability  to  top  the  market 
when  sold.  The  ultimate  end  of  the  hog  is  the  pork 
barrel,  and  the  price  received  for  the  finished  shotes  is  an 
important  factor  determining  the  profits  of  the  business. 
This  factor  is  probably  more  important  in  the  production 
of  bacon  than  of  lard  hogs. 

The  market  prefers  and  will  pay  the  highest  price  for 
hogs  which  will  yield  a  large  proportion  of  dressed  to  live 
weight  and  carcasses  which  possess  the  weight  and  quality 
which  will  please  the  consumer.  The  type  of  finished 
fat  barrow  which  will  give  these  results  is  one  which  is 
fairly  fat,  which  is  wide  and  thick  of  back  and  loin,  deep 
in  the  hams  and  sides,  which  is  smooth  and  uniform  in 
his  width,  neat  about  the  head  and  jowl,  and  trim  in  his 
underline.  To  produce  pigs  which  will  be  ideal  killers, 
they  must  have  sufficient  quality  and  the  aptitude  to 
fatten  when  six  to  ten  months  of  age.  To  produce  this 
kind,  the  sows  and  boars  must  be  selected  which  by  their 
easy  feeding  qualities  and  general  smoothness  seem  to 
possess  the  ability  to  transmit  quality  to  their  offspring. 


Breeding  457 

In  other  words,  they  must  themselves  possess  quality, 
smoothness,  and  easy  feeding  qualities. 

In  seeking  quality  and  early  maturity,  however,  care 
must  be  exercised.  The  effort  to  secure  quality  has  in 
many  instances  been  overdone,  with  the  result  that  fertile 
breeding  qualities,  substance,  and  constitution  were  lost. 
What  is  desired  is  all  the  quality  possible  without  sacri- 
ficing the  more  fundamental  essentials  which  have  to  do 
with  reproduction  and  growth.  The  sows  should  be 
prolific,  produce  pigs  capable  of  rapid  growth,  and  in 
addition,  these  pigs  should  be  smooth  and  fat  at  the  age 
when  they  can  be  most  profitably  marketed.  If  an  ideal 
breed  of  hogs  is  ever  evolved,  it  will  be  the  result  of  the 
proper  combination  of  these  three  essentials. 


CHAPTER  XX 
THE  PREVENTION  OF  HOG  DISEASES 

By  R.  A.  Craig 

BECAUSE  of  the  heavy  death  rate,  pork  production 
was  until  a  few  years  ago  considered  a  hazardous  business. 
Previous  to  1916  the  annual  death  rate  among  hogs  in 
the  corn-belt  states  was  from  6  to  25  per  cent.  The 
financial  loss  for  the  United  States  in  certain  years  has 
amounted  to  about  $100,000,000. 

Although  the  death  rate  resulting  from  cholera  and 
other  infectious  swine  diseases  has  been  greatly  lowered  in 
the  past  few  years,  these  diseases  are  still  quite  prevalent. 
The  death  rate  in  hogs  continues  higher  than  in  other  kinds 
of  farm  animals.  Control  or  eradication  of  infectious 
swine  diseases  cannot  occur  until  health  officers  and  stock- 
men have  a  better  appreciation  and  knowledge  of  disease- 
control  measures. 

RELATION  OF  SANITATION  TO  DISEASE 

Sanitation  may  be  defined  as  the  application  of  necessary 
health-conserving  and  disease-prevention  methods.  It 
has  a  very  close  relation  to  herd  management.  The 
practice  of  feeding  medicated  stock-foods  or  vaccinating 
hogs  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  a  "filth  disease''  cannot 
take  the  place  of  sanitation.  The  best  results  can  be 
secured  only  through  practicing  sanitation  in  caring 
for  animals  together  with  the  use  of  a  reliable  remedy 

458 


The  Prevention  of  Hog  Diseases  459 

or  vaccine  in  case  the  herd  is  diseased,  or  has  been  exposed 
to  a  communicable  disease. 

The  relation  of  sanitation  to  disease  may  be  discussed 
under  the  following  heads :  confining  hogs  in  crowded 
quarters;  location,  construction,  and  arrangement  of 
buildings  and  yards;  method  of  feeding;  and  source  of 
water  supply. 

It  is  not  uncommon  for  hogs  to  be  closely  confined  and 
in  quarters  that  are  overcrowded.  Such  quarters  are 
usually  the  filthiest  places  on  the  farm,  as  it  is  very  diffi- 
cult to  keep  crowded  pens  and  houses  clean.  Disease- 
producing  germs  such  as  the  Bacillus  tuberculosis  and 
filterable  virus  of  hog  cholera  cannot  originate  in  filth, 
but  when  introduced  into  filthy  quarters  the  infection 
soon  spreads  among  the  animals.  Close  confinement 
and  crowding  greatly  lower  resistance  toward  disease, 
especially  in  young  animals,  and  filthy  feeding  floors  and 
watering  places  favor  the  entrance  of  disease-producing 
germs  into  the  body.  Some  of  these  germs  may  live  for 
months  in  the  manure  and  litter  that  is  allowed  to  accumu- 
late about  the  pens  and  houses.  Infestation  by  lung  and 
intestinal  worms  and  lice  is  greatest  when  hogs  are  closely 
confined. 

Straw  stacks,  old  straw  sheds,  and  houses  with  dirt 
floors  are  very  unsatisfactory  shelters  for  hogs.  Young 
animals  cannot  thrive  or  remain  healthy  if  allowed  to 
pile  up  and  burrow  into  straw  stacks,  or  lie  on  a  wet  bed 
of  straw  and  in  dusty  quarters.  Such  "makeshift" 
quarters  greatly  increase  the  cost  of  producing  pork. 
During  the  fall,  winter,  and  spring,  hogs  should  have  a 
clean  dry  bed  of  straw.  Portable  houses  and  sun  shades 
should  have  a  wood  or  concrete  floor.  Earth  floors  are 
usually  dusty,  and  dust  is  one  of  the  greatest  enemies 


460  Pork  Production 

to  the  health  of  hogs.  It  is  very  seldom  that  a  floor  of 
dirt  is  kept  free  of  filth.  Much  of  the  bronchitis,  pneu- 
monia, rheumatism,  and  pig  scours  can  be  prevented  by 
avoiding  these  insanitary  conditions. 

If  the  site  selected  for  the  buildings  and  yards  does  not 
have  sufficient  surface  drainage,  grading  and  tiling  the 
yards  may  correct  this  condition.  It  is  advisable  to 
arrange  the  lots  so  that  any  one  of  them  can  be  plowed, 
and  sowed  to  rape,  rye,  or  other  forage  crops.  This  i? 
the  most  effective  method  of  cleaning  hog  lots  that  have 
been  used  continuously.  Manure,  corn-cobs,  and  other 
litter  should  not  be  allowed  to  accumulate  in  the  hog- 
houses  and  yards.  The  yards  should  be  cleaned  by 
raking  or  scraping  the  litter  into  piles.  The  litter  may  be 
burned  or  scattered  over  a  field  and  later  plowed  under. 
Small  yards  may  be  covered  with  lime  after  they  have 
been  thoroughly  cleaned. 

The  two  most  important  sanitary  features  to  consider 
when  building  a  hog-house  are  the  windows  and  floors. 
Sunlight  and  well-ventilated  quarters  are  necessary  to 
the  health  of  animals.  Unless  the  floor  is  made  of  a 
material  that  does  not  readily  take  up  the  filth,  it  cannot 
be  kept  clean.  The  windows  should  be  so  placed  as  to 
permit  sunlight  to  reach  all  parts  of  the  floor,  and  venti- 
late the  building  without  causing  drafts  to  strike  the  hogs 
while  they  are  lying  on  their  beds. 

Hogs  should  not  be  given  feed  on  the  ground,  especially 
if  the  yard  is  muddy.  If  hand-feeding  is  practiced,  a 
concrete  feeding-floor  amply  large  to  accommodate  the 
herd  should  be  provided.  The  feeding-floor  should  be 
cleaned  daily,  and  frequently  sprinkled  with  a  disinfec- 
tant .  If  garbage  is  fed,  the  floor  should  be  cleaned,  washed, 
and  disinfected  daily.  When  hogs  are  given  wide  range, 


The  Prevention  of  Hog  Diseases  461 

there  is  no  objection  from  a  sanitary  point  of  view  to 
feeding  on  the  ground,  providing  a  different  place  is 
selected  from  day  to  day.  Feeding  from  a  self-feeder 
is  more  sanitary  than  hand-feeding  on  the  floor  or  ground. 
It  is  not  advisable  to  allow  hogs  to  wallow  in  or  drink 
from  small  streams.  In  the  corn-belt  such  streams  usually 
receive  sewage  from  other  hog  lots,  and  are  a  common 
source  of  disease.  Ponds  and  wallows  are  usually  little 
better  than  cesspools.  They  receive  the  drainage  from 
the  surface  of  the  lot  and  should  be  filled  in  with  dirt  in 
order  to  prevent  hogs  using  them  for  wallowing  or  drink- 
ing places.  Water  from  a  good  well  given  to  the  hogs 
in  clean  troughs  or  drinking  fountains  is  the  only  satis- 
factory water  supply. 

Disinfection  of  hog-houses  and  yards. 

The  first  step  in  disinfecting  hog-houses  and  yards  is  to 
give  the  surface  that  is  to  be  disinfected  a  thorough  clean- 
ing. All  litter  such  as  manure,  straw,  and  corn-cobs 
should  first  be  removed  from  the  lot,  and  dust  and  dirt 
brushed  and  scraped  from  the  walls  and  floors  of  the  hog- 
houses.  The  surface  of  an  earth  floor  should  be  removed 
to  a  depth  of  several  inches.  Portable  houses  or  piles 
of  rails  and  lumber  should  be  moved  in  order  to  permit 
cleaning  under  them.  Straw  should  be  hauled  to  a  field 
that  is  to  be  plowed  later,  or  piled  where  other  live-stock 
cannot  come  in  contact  with  it.  Plowing  the  lots  and 
sowing  a  forage  crop  is  the  most  economical  method  of 
cleaning  them.  They  may  be  covered  with  quicklime, 
or  rested  for  a  few  months  in  order  to  permit  the  sun  and 
other  natural  disinfectants  to  destroy  the  disease-pro- 
ducing germs.  The  houses  should  be  sprayed  with  a  water 
solution  of  a  reliable  cresol  or  coal  tar  disinfectant.  Unless 


462 


Pork  Production 


the  pump  used  throws  the  spray  with  sufficient  force  to 
drive  the  disinfectant  into  cracks  and  uneven  places  in 
the  walls  and  floors,  the  disease-producing  germs  are  not 
killed  and  the  house  is  not  rid  of  the  infection.  The 
same  is  true  if  any  of  the  surface  is  missed.  For  this 
reason,  it  is  best  to  add  sufficient  hydrated  lime  to  the 
disinfecting  solution  to  make  a  thin  whitewash.  This 
enables  the  person  who  is  applying  the  solution  to  detect 
any  part  of  the  surface  that  has  not  been  covered. 

The  most  reliable  and  safest  disinfectant  for  hog- 
houses  and  feeding  floors  is  a  3  per  cent  water  solution  of 
liquor  cresolis  compound.  Coal-tar  disinfectants  may  be 
used  in  3  to  5  per  cent  water  solutions.  The  following 
gives  the  quantity  of  disinfectant  to  a  gallon  of  water 
used  in  making  the  different  per  cent  solutions : 

TABLE  CLXXVIII.  —  DISINFECTANTS  FOB  HOG-HOUSES 


QUANTIITY  OF  DISINFECTANT 

QUANTITY  OF 
WATER 

PER  CENT 
SOLUTION 

1  gallon 

1 

2  5  ou.nc6s                             .     . 

1  gallon 

2 

3  8  ounces  

1  gallon 

3 

1  gallon 

4 

6.3  ounces  

1  gallon 

5 

RELATION   OF  QUARANTINE   LAWS   TO  DISEASE 

Better  quarantine  laws  and  proper  enforcement  of 
them  are  necessary  before  such  diseases  as  hog  cholera  and 
tuberculosis  can  be  controlled  and  stamped  out.  Stock- 
men realize  this  and  instead  of  considering  intra-  and 
interstate  quarantine  laws  a  detriment,  as  was  the  case  a 


The  Prevention  of  Hog  Diseases  463 

few  years  ago,  they  now  appreciate  the  value  of  the  pro- 
tection that  these  laws  have  given  the  swine  industry. 

In  order  to  prevent  the  spread  of  communicable  dis- 
eases, an  early  diagnosis  is  necessary.  If  stock-men  had 
a  better  knowledge  of  this  class  of  disease,  they  would 
be  able  to  practice  control  measures  at  a  time  when  the 
most  good  could  be  accomplished.  In  case  a  disease  is 
believed  to  be  infectious,  a  veterinarian  should  be  called 
for  the  purpose  of  diagnosis,  and  if  it  proves  infectious 
he  should  notify  the  proper  health  officer. 

Most  infectious  diseases  can  be  controlled  by  quaran- 
tining the  exposed  and  sick  animals  on  the  premises  where 
the  outbreak  occurs.  However,  in  the  control  of  tubercu- 
losis it  is  necessary  to  slaughter  tubercular  hogs.  Stock- 
men should  voluntarily  comply  with  quarantine  regula- 
tions recommended  by  the  Federal  and  state  health 
officers.  A  man  who  sells  cholera  hogs  to  his  neighbor  in 
order  to  escape  personal  loss  is  pursuing  a  very  short- 
sighted policy.  In  selling  diseased  animals  he  violates 
the  laws  of  his  state,  perpetuates  hog  cholera  in  his  com- 
munity, and  makes  it  necessary  to  keep  his  hogs  immu- 
nized against  cholera. 

DISEASES    OF  THE  DIGESTIVE   SYSTEM 

Stomatitis  or  sore  mouth. 

The  two  forms  of  inflammation  of  the  mouth  are  the 
simple  and  the  ulcerative.  The  simple  form  of  the 
disease  is  met  with  in  young  and  mature  hogs,  and  the 
ulcerative  in  young  pigs. 

Simple  inflamation  of  the  mouth  is  usually  caused  by 
irritation  from  hot  or  decomposed  feeds  and  feeds  contain- 
ing irritating  substances.  Treating  hogs  with  irritating 


464  Pork  Production 

drenches  is  sometimes  a  cause.  Very  serious  outbreaks 
of  stomatitis  sometimes  occur  in  hogs  that  are  allowed  to 
feed  about  straw  stacks,  due  to  the  awns  or  beards  of 
barley  or  other  grains  penetrating  and  lodging  in  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth.  Sick  animals  may 
develop  sore  mouth  because  of  their  debilitated  condition 
and  the  salivary  secretions  not  keeping  the  mucous 
membrane  clean. 

Difficult  mastication  or  inability  to  eat,  champing  the 
teeth  and  dipping  the  snout  into  water  are  common 
symptoms.  After  the  first  or  dry  stage  of  the  inflamma- 
tion has  passed,  frothy  saliva  may  accumulate  about  the 
lips  or  hang  in  strings  from  the  mouth.  The  lips  and 
cheeks  may  appear  swollen,  and  the  lining  membrane  of 
the  mouth  coated  or  red.  A  mild  localized  case  of 
stomatitis  may  not  be  noticed  by  the  attendant. 

Unless  the  lining  membrane  of  the  mouth  is  severely 
injured  by  irritating  food,  the  disease  responds  quickly 
to  dieting  and  treatment  with  antiseptic  washes.  Pre- 
ventive treatment  consists  in  avoiding  irritating  feeds 
and  insanitary  drinking  places.  Plenty  of  clean  water 
should  be  provided  so  that  the  hog  can  clean  its 
mouth.  Usually  this  is  all  the  treatment  necessary.  If 
awns  become  lodged  in  the  mucous  membrane,  they 
should  be  removed.  The  mouth  may  be  washed  daily 
with  an  antiseptic  solution,  such  as  a  teaspoonful  of 
powdered  alum  dissolved  in  one  quart  of  water,  or  J 
per  cent  water  solution  of  liquor  cresolis  compound. 
Mouth  washes  should  be  applied  to  the  inside  of  the 
cheeks,  lips,  and  other  parts  of  the  mouth  with  a  syringe. 

Ulcerative  inflammation  of  the  mouth  is  a  disease  of 
pigs  caused  by  the  Bacillus  necrophorus.  It  is  spread  by 
pigs  nursing  mothers  whose  udders  have  become  soiled 


The  Prevention  of  Hog  Diseases  465 

with  filth  that  contains  the  disease-producing  germs. 
Pigs  that  have  ulcerative  sore  mouth,  if  allowed  to  nurse 
mothers  having  healthy  litters,  leave  the  virus  of  the 
disease  on  the  teats  and  the  infection  spreads  to  the 
healthy  pigs.  Eruption  of  the  teeth  is,  no  doubt,  a  com- 
mon predisposing  factor. 

The  first  symptom,  which  usually  escapes  notice,  is  a 
localized  inflammation  of  the  lining  membrane  of  the 
lips,  cheeks,  and  gums.  Early  in  the  disease  the  inflamed 
part  is  slightly  swollen  and  red ;  later  it  is  white  in  color. 
This  white  patch  soon  sloughs,  leaving  a  deep  irregular 
ulcer.  At  first  the  pig  shows  some  difficulty  in  nursing, 
but  as  soon  as  the  ulcers  form  it  refuses  to  nurse,  appears 
dull  and  weak,  and  loses  flesh  rapidly.  Portions  of  the  lips, 
snout,  and  gums  may  slough  off.  Scabs  may  be  present 
on  the  face  and  neck.  The  death  rate  is  very  high. 

The  treatment  is  largely  preventive.  This  consists  in 
using  the  necessary  precautions  against  bringing  the 
disease  on  to  the  premises,  and  keeping  the  quarters  free 
from  mud,  dust,  and  filth.  If  the  disease  is  detected  before 
it  has  affected  more  than  one  or  two  litters,  the  unexposed 
litters  with  their  mothers  and  the  sows  that  have  not 
farrowed  should  be  moved  to  new  quarters,  and  the 
infected  pigs  either  killed  or  placed  in  quarantine.  It  is 
advisable  to  clean  the  sows'  udders  daily,  by  washing  with 
a  disinfectant.  A  different  solution  and  cloth  should  be 
used  on  each  sow  in  order  to  avoid  distributing  the 
disease-producing  germs.  The  pigs  should  be  examined 
daily,  and  treated  promptly  if  symptoms  of  the  disease 
are  noted.  Such  disinfectants  as  2  per  cent  water  solu- 
tion of  liquor  cresolis  compound,  or  2  per  cent  water 
solution  of  permanganate  of  potassium  may  be  used. 
Dipping  the  pigs,  head  foremost,  into  the  latter  disinfect- 
2n 


466  Pork  Production 

ant  may  be  practiced  in  large  herds.  Ulcers  should  be 
scraped  or  curetted  and  cauterized  with  lunar  caustic. 
It  is  best  to  kill  pigs  showing  extensive  ulceration  of 
the  gums  and  lips. 

Gastro-enteritis   or    inflammation    of   the   stomach  and 
intestines. 

Inflammation  of  the  stomach  and  intestines  may  occur 
independently,  but  usually  both  organs  are  involved.  The 
causes  are  very  similar.  The  disease  is  common  in  feeding 
hogs  that  have  "gone  off  feed"  for  a  few  days,  and  when 
they  again  begin  to  eat  overload  their  stomachs.  Feeds 
that  are  spoiled  or  contain  such  acrid  poisons  as  washing- 
powders  are  common  causes  in  swill-fed  hogs.  It  may 
occur  as  a  complication  of  other  diseases.  Gastritis  is 
always  present  in  salt  poisoning. 

The  symptoms  are  loss  of  appetite,  restlessness,  and 
sometimes  colicky  pains.  In  poisoning  caused  by  salt, 
brine,  or  washing-powders,  marked  weakness  and  depres- 
sion occur.  The  hog  usually  wanders  off  by  itself,  acts 
dull,  grunts,  lies  down  in  a  quiet  place,  or  stands  with 
the  back  arched  and  abdomen  held  tense.  Vomiting  is  a 
common  symptom.  Constipation  and  diarrhoea  occur. 
The  body  temperature  may  be  above  normal  early  in 
the  disease ;  later,  normal  or  subnormal. 

The  treatment  is  largely  preventive.  This  consists  in 
preventing  hogs  that  are  off  feed  from  overloading  when 
they  again  begin  to  eat,  and  practicing  proper  precautions 
when  feeding  slop  or  garbage.  Poisoning  from  eating  too 
much  salt  is  common  in  hogs.  Hogs  should  be  salted  at 
regular  intervals  or  have  access  to  it  at  all  times.  Stock- 
foods  that  consist  mostly  of  common  salt,  Glauber's  or 
Epsom  salts  should  not  be  mixed  with  the  feed.  Hogs 


The  Prevention  of  Hog  Diseases  467 

that  are  not  accustomed  to  them  should  be  fed  sparingly 
at  first  and  not  allowed  to  eat  all  they  want.  With- 
holding all  feed  at  first  and  later  feeding  a  light  ration 
is  the  most  effective  curative  treatment.  From  1  to  4 
ounces  of  linseed-oil,  depending  on  the  size  of  the  hog, 
should  be  administered  early  in  the  disease. 

Diarrhoea  or  scours  in  pigs. 

It  is  not  uncommon  for  young  pigs  to  have  congestion 
and  inflammation  of  the  stomach  and  intestine.  This 
disease  is  characterized  by  a  diarrhoea. 

The  causes  of  diarrhoea  may  be  grouped  under  the 
following  heads  :  diseased  condition  of  the  mother ;  wrong 
methods  of  caring  for  the  mother  and  her  litter;  and 
specific  infection. 

At  the  time  of  farrowing,  the  sow  is  sometimes  very 
sick,  and  the  act  of  farrowing  may  be  prolonged.  Unless 
the  necessary  precautions  are  observed  by  the  attendant, 
the  pigs  may  develop  a  severe  diarrhoea  because  of  the 
abnormal  composition  of  the  mother's  milk.  The  sow 
should  not  be  given  feed  until  she  is  in  condition  to  digest 
it.  It  is  advisable  to  physic  her  in  order  to  rid  the  in- 
testine of  the  toxic  substances  that  may  be  absorbed  and 
later  eliminated  in  the  milk. 

Changes  in  the  ration,  excitement,  and  disease  alter 
the  composition  of  the  mother's  milk,  and  such  milk  may 
prove  irritating  to  the  digestive  organs  of  the  pig.  Dark 
filthy  quarters,  and  cold  damp  beds  lower  the  pig's 
vitality.  Such  conditions  may  act  as  predisposing  factors 
or  as  direct  causes  of  the  disease.  In  years  when  the 
spring  season  is  cold  and  wet,  the  latter  causes  are  re- 
sponsible for  the  heavy  death  rate  occurring  in  pigs  that 
are  not  well  housed  and  cared  for. 


468  Pork  Production 

Diarrhoea  caused  by  irritating  germs  is  a  highly  infec- 
tious disease.  These  germs  gain  entrance  to  the  body  of 
the  pig  by  way  of  the  digestive  tract  and  navel  cord. 
Infectious  diarrhoea  is  very  fatal. 

Preventive  measures  are  the  most  satisfactory  so  far 
known  for  diarrhoea  in  pigs.  This  prevention  consists 
in  avoiding  conditions  that  may  directly  or  indirectly 
cause  the  disease;  in  allowing  the  sow  plenty  of  ex- 
ercise ;  and  in  feeding  her  the  right  kind  of  ration  before 
farrowing,  in  order  that  she  may  give  birth  to  strong 
healthy  pigs. 

Pigs  from  a  few  days  to  a  few  weeks  old  may  be  treated 
indirectly  by  dieting  and  giving  the  mother  a  physic.  It 
is  advisable  to  feed  the  mother  a  very  light  ration,  espe- 
cially if  she  is  a  heavy  milker.  From  2  to  4  ounces  of 
linseed-oil  should  be  given  in  a  drench  or  with  the  feed. 
Older  pigs  may  receive  treatment  direct.  The  dose  of 
linseed-oil  depends  on  the  age  and  size  of  the  pigs  and 
will  vary  from  one  teaspoonful  to  one  tablespoonful. 
The  following  mixture  may  be  given :  bicarbonate  of 
soda  4  drams,  bismuth  subnitrate  2  drams,  and  salol 
1  dram.  This  mixture  may  be  given  in  gelatin  cap- 
sules, from  four  to  fifteen  grain  doses  twice  daily  being 
administered. 

DISEASES   OF  THE  RESPIRATORY  ORGANS 

Diseases  of  the  air  passages  and  lungs  are  common  in 
hogs.  This  group  of  diseases  may  be  classified  as  specific 
when  due  to  an  infection  such  as  the  Bacillus  suisepti- 
cus  and  filterable  virus,  and  non-specific  when  due  to 
such  causes  as  chilling,  irritation  from  inhaling  dust,  and 
un ventilated  quarters, 


The  Prevention  of  Hog  Diseases  469 

/ 

The  most  prominent  symptom  in  sore  throat  and 
bronchitis  is  coughing.  Paroxysms  of  coughing  may  occur 
when  the  hog  gets  up  from  its  bed  and  moves  about. 
Young  hogs  may  not  thrive,  but  the  appetite  usually 
remains  good.  If  the  hog  has  pneumonia  or  pleurisy,  it 
is  usually  seen  lying  in  its  bed.  The  animal  gives  evi- 
dence of  loss  of  appetite,  displays  abnormal  rapid  breath- 
ing, and  shows  elevation  of  body  temperature  during  the 
first  stage  of  the  disease. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  use  drugs  for  the  treatment  of 
non-specific  respiratory  diseases.  All  that  is  necessary 
is  special  attention  to  the  quarters  and  diet.  A  well- 
balanced  ration  should  be  fed  to  hogs  in  order  to  keep 
them  thriving.  They  should  not  be  allowed  to  lie  in 
dusty  places,  straw  stacks,  manure  heaps,  or  damp 
quarters.  Shady  places  where  hogs  are  sure  to  lie  during 
the  hot  weather  usually  become  very  dusty.  It  is  best 
to  wet  down  the  dust  in  such  places  and  afterwards 
sprinkle  them  over  with  crude  oil.  Danger  from  un- 
ventilated  damp  sleeping  quarters  and  drafts  can  be 
avoided  by  proper  construction  of  hog-houses;  careful 
attention  should  be  given  here. 

Good  nursing  is  the  most  important  treatment  for  hogs 
having  pneumonia.  A  clean  comfortable  bed  and  well- 
ventilated  quarters  should  be  provided.  From  \  to  2 
ounces  of  linseed-oil  may  be  given  and  the  dose  repeated 
after  an  interval  of  two  or  three  days. 

The  only  satisfactory  treatment  for  specific  pneumonia 
or  pleuro-pneumonia  is  prevention.  This  is  based  on 
sanitation,  as  a  successful  vaccine  is  not  available.  Hog 
cholera  caused  by  the  filterable  virus  with  its  complica- 
tion pneumonia  can  be  successfully  treated  with  anti- 
hog-cholera  serum, 


470  Pork  Production 


DISEASES  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM 

Partial  or  complete  paralysis  of  the  posterior  portion  of 
the  body. 

This  is  a  common  disease  of  young  hogs.  It  may  be 
due  to  the  following  causes :  injuries  such  as  strains  and 
blows  to  the  region  of  the  back;  pressure  on  the  spinal 
cord  resulting  from  enlargements  of  the  disks  between 
the  vertebrae ;  constipation ;  extreme  heat  from  the  sun's 
rays;  and  close  hot  quarters.  Young  fat  animals  may 
suffer  from  malnutrition  of  the  bones  because  of  a  faulty 
ration  and  complete  fractures  of  bones  occur.  A  condi- 
tion resembling  paralysis  of  the  hind  parts  results  when 
the  thigh  bones  are  fractured.  Rheumatic  inflammation 
of  the  back  muscles  is  followed  by  partial  loss  of  control 
over  the  movement  of  the  hind  parts.  As  the  shoulder 
muscles  are  usually  affected  as  well,  the  hog  may  walk 
on  its  knees.  This  symptom  enables  the  attendant  to 
differentiate  between  the  two  diseases. 

The  prognosis  is  unfavorable.  Unless  the  hog  shows 
evidence  of  recovery  in  the  first  two  or  three  weeks,  it 
is  not  advisable  to  continue  treatment. 

The  following  preventive  measures  should  be  practiced. 
A  predisposition  toward  rickets  and  fractures  of  the  bones 
may  be  avoided  by  feeding  a  well-balanced  ration  and 
allowing  young  hogs  exercise  in  a  pasture  or  lot.  Hogs 
should  not  be  allowed  to  sleep  or  feed  in  quarters  where 
they  pile  up  and  crowd  one  another. 

The  treatment  consists  in  giving  the  hog  a  comfortable 
well-bedded  pen.  It  should  not  be  forced  to  move  about. 
A  light  diet  and  clean  drinking  water  should  be  fed.  Any 
tendency  toward  becoming  constipated  may  be  overcome 


PLATE  XII.  —  Above,  Litter  of  pigs  containing  a  reversion  in 
color,  the  product  of  mating  Berkshire- Yorkshire  parents ;  middle, 
Poland-China  sow  with  litter  of  pigs  by  a  Yorkshire  boar ;  below, 
Berkshire  sow  with  litter  of  pigs  by  a  Duroc- Jersey  boar. 


The  Prevention  of  Hog  Diseases  471 

by  giving  the  hog  a  physic  in  small  doses  with  its  feed 
daily  or  at  two-  or  three-day  intervals. 

Spasm  of  the  diaphragm  or  thumps. 

This  disease  is  characterized  by  a  jerky  contraction  of 
the  flank  muscles.  It  may  be  differentiated  from  palpita- 
tion, a  functional  disorder  of  the  heart,  by  determining 
the  relation  of  the  heart  beats  to  the  abrupt  contractions 
of  the  flank  muscles.  It  is  very  common  in  young  pigs, 
and  rarely  occurs  in  mature  hogs. 

The  spasmodic  contractions  of  the  diaphragm  are  caused 
by  irritation  of  the  diaphragmatic  nerves.  This  condition 
is  due  to  gastric  irritation  resulting  from  insufficient 
exercise  and  a  liberal  ration. 

Prevention,  which  consists  in  avoiding  conditions  that 
may  cause  the  disease,  is  more  important  than  the  curative 
treatment.  As  soon  as  symptoms  of  "  thumps  "  are  shown, 
the  ration  should  be  cut  and  the  animal  forced  to  take 
exercise.  Young  pigs  may  be  exercised  in  a  well-bedded 
pen,  or  placed  in  a  pen  adjoining  the  mother's  for  a  few 
hours  daily.  The  mother  should  be  given  from  2  to  6 
ounces  of  linseed-oil,  depending  on  her  age  and  weight. 
Young  hogs  may  receive  from  f  to  2  ounces  of  linseed-oil. 

CASTRATION 

Castration  of  the  male  hog  is  usually  performed  by  the 
owner  or  attendant.  It  is  not  the  common  practice  to 
call  a  veterinarian  and  the  operation  may  be  performed 
in  a  very  careless  indifferent  manner.  Unless  the  operator 
is  experienced  or  willing  to  practice  correct  methods,  it 
is  more  profitable  to  turn  it  over  to  an  experienced  careful 
person. 

Pigs  may  be  castrated  when  a  few  weeks  or  a  few  months 


472  Pork  Production 

of  age.  It  is  not  best  to  operate  at  weaning  time,  as 
both  castration  and  weaning  together  may  temporarily 
check  the  hog's  growth.  The  season  of  the  year  makes 
very  little  difference,  providing  the  necessary  care  is 
given  the  hogs  before  and  after  the  operation. 

Preparation  for  castration  consists  in  withholding  feed 
for  ten  or  twelve  hours  and  confining  the  hogs  in  a  clean 
well-bedded  pen  or  lot.  If  this  is  practiced,  they  are  in 
a  better  condition  for  the  operation  and  cleaner  to  handle 
than  when  filled  with  feed  and  covered  with  mud  and 
filth. 

The  instruments  necessary  are  a  heavy  scalpel  and 
probe-pointed  bistoury.  Some  operators  use  scissors  for 
cutting  of  the  cord  and  its  covering.  It  is  advisable  to 
sever  the  testicular  cords  of  a  hog  more  than  six  months 
old  with  an  emasculator  in  order  to  avoid  hemorrhage. 
Scrotal  hernia  in  hogs  is  common,  and  it  is  best  for  the 
operator  to  provide  himself  with  a  straight  surgeon's 
needle  and  heavy  linen  or  silk  thread  for  ligating  the  cord 
and  covering.  A  pan  or  pail  of  a  water  solution  of  liquor 
cresolis  compound  or  an  equally  good  disinfectant  with 
pieces  of  oakum  or  absorbent  cotton  for  washing  and 
cleaning  the  scrotum  are  necessary. 

If  a  number  of  hogs  are  to  be  castrated,  they  should  be 
confined  in  a  small  pen,  as  this  enables  the  attendant  to 
handle  them  without  unduly  exciting  or  exercising  them. 
They  should  be  placed  on  a  table  or  the  floor  of  an  adjoin- 
ing pen  and  held  firmly  by  the  attendant.  It  may  be 
necessary  to  tie  the  legs  of  a  mature  hog  with  a  quarter- 
inch  rope  in  order  to  confine  him  for  the  operation.  The 
skin  over  the  scrotum  is  first  cleaned  by  washing  with  a 
disinfecting  solution.  An  incision  parallel  with  and  a 
little  to  one  side  of  the  middle  line  or  raphe  is  made 


The  Prevention  of  Hog  Diseases  473 

through  the  scrotal  wall  and  covering  of  the  testicle.  The 
testicle  and  cord  are  then  pulled  well  out,  the  cord  broken 
off  with  a  quick  jerk  and  twist,  scraped  off  with  a  knife, 
or  cut  off  with  the  emasculator  in  order  to  avoid 
hemorrhage.  The  opposite  testicle  is  then  removed,  and 
the  incisions  lengthened  by  cutting  the  scrotal  w^all  to 
the  bottom  of  the  sack,  using  a  probe-pointed  bistoury. 

If  the  cord  is  severed  high  up  so  that  the  cut  end  does 
not  hang  into  the  scrotal  sack,  and  complete  drainage 
for  the  wound  secretions  and  pus  provided,  there  is  little 
danger  of  fibrous  tumors  forming  as  a  complication.  If 
such  tumors  form  they  should  be  removed. 

Scrotal  hernia  is  frequently  met  with.  It  may  be 
overcome  by  practicing  the  covered  operation.  The  hog 
is  prepared  for  this  by  withholding  feed  for  twenty-four 
hours.  The  animal  is  held  or  hung  up  by  the  hind  legs. 
The  hernia  is  reduced  by  manipulating  the  mass  of 
intestines,  so  that  they  drop  back  into  the  abdominal 
cavity.  The  scrotal  sack  is  cleaned  the  same  as  for 
castration,  and  an  incision  made  through  the  scrotal 
wall,  but  not  through  the  thin  covering  of  the  testicle. 
The  testicle  with  the  cord  and  covering  is  drawn  well 
out,  a  needle  carrying  a  strong  silk  or  linen  thread  passed 
through  the  cord  at  as  low  a  point  as  possible,  the  cord 
and  covering  ligated,  and  cut  off  about  one-half  inch 
above  the  ligature.  The  incision  in  the  scrotal  sack  is 
then  made  large  enough  to  insure  drainage. 

PARASITES   OF  HOGS 

Parasites  that  infest  hogs  may  be  classified  as  external 
and  internal.  External  parasites  are  the  hog-louse, 
Hcematopinus  suis,  which  infests  the  surface  of  the  skin, 


474  Pork  Production 

and  a  small  mite  that  burrows  under  the  epidermis. 
The  former  is  the  most  common  louse,  and  the  latter 
is  the  least  common  of  the  sarcoptic  mites  occurring 
in  domestic  animals.  The  mite  is  of  little  economic 
importance. 

The  favorite  points  of  attack  of  the  hog-louse  are  the 
under  surface  of  the  body,  neck  and  inside  of  the  thighs. 
The  irritation  to  the  skin  is  severe.  Young  hogs  that  are 
badly  infested  may  be  so  restless  and  lose  so  much  blood 
that  they  become  unthrifty. 

It  is  very  difficult  completely  to  rid  a  drove  of  hogs  of 
lice.  The  most  satisfactory  method  is  to  practice  dipping 
at  frequent  intervals.  The  most  effective  agent  for  de- 
stroying hog-lice  is  crude  oil.  The  layer  of  oil  on  top  of 
the  water  in  the  dipping  tank  should  not  be  less  than  one 
inch  thick.  Crude  oil  may  be  applied  to  the  bodies  of 
the  hogs  with  a  sprinkling  pot  or  swab.  If  this  method 
is  practiced,  it  is  advisable  to  crowd  the  hogs  into  a  small 
pen.  This  may  be  done  in  cold  weather  when  it  is  impos- 
sible to  dip  them. 

The  most  common  internal  parasites  of  hogs  are  the 
round  worms.  They  infest  the  lungs,  intestines,  and 
abdominal  cavity.  The  Ascaris  suis  which  inhabits  the 
small  intestine  and  liver  is  the  most  common  intestinal 
worm.  It  varies  from  4  to  10  inches  in  length.  Other 
intestinal  worms  are  the  whip  worm,  Trichocephalus 
crenatus  and  the  pin  worm,  CEsophagostoma  dentatum. 
The  former  is  about  2  inches  long  and  inhabits  the  first 
division  of  the  large  intestine,  and  the  latter  is  about 
.5  inch  long  and  inhabits  the  posterior  portion  of  the  large 
intestine.  The  thorn-headed  worm,  Echinorhynchus  gigas, 
is  a  common  intestinal  parasite  in  some  sections  of  the 
country.  It  is  usually  found  with  its  proboscis  or  thorn 


The  Prevention  of  Hog  Diseases  475 

imbedded  in  the  wall  of  the  small  intestine.  It  is  from 
3  to  10  inches  long. 

The  treatment  of  intestinal  worms  is  both  preventive 
and  medicinal.  Hogs  become  badly  infested  with  these 
parasites  by  taking  the  eggs  and  embryos  into  the  digestive 
tract  along  with  the  feed  and  water.  If  confined  in  yards 
and  pastures  that  have  become  filthy  through  continuous 
use,  serious  infestation  of  the  intestines  occurs.  The 
preventive  treatment  consists  in  not  keeping  hogs  in  the 
same  place  throughout  the  year.  Yards  and  pastures 
should  be  so  arranged  that  the  hogs  can  be  changed  about, 
and  each  lot  rested  for  a  few  months  during  the  year. 
The  feeding  and  drinking  places  should  be  kept  clean. 
The  thorn-headed  worm  has  an  intermediate  host,  the 
larvae  of  the  May  beetle,  and  pastures  may  remain 
infested  with  the  immature  form  of  this  parasite  for  a 
long  period. 

A  combination  of  santonin  and  calomel  is  the  most 
satisfactory  medicinal  remedy  for  intestinal  worms.  The 
dose  for  young  hogs  weighing  from  forty  to  eighty  pounds 
is  2  grains  of  santonin  and  2  grains  of  calomel  given  in  a 
capsule.  Hogs  should  be  prepared  for  the  treatment 
by  withholding  all  feed  for  at  least  twelve  hours.  By 
dividing  the  drove  into  lots  of  ten  to  fifteen  hogs,  santonin 
and  calomel  may  be  given  in  the  feed.  Santonin  3  to  5 
grains  and  calomel  5  to  8  grains  is  the  amount  given  for 
each  100  pounds  body  weight.  If  the  hogs  are  small  and 
it  requires  two  or  three  to  weigh  100  pounds,  they  should 
receive  the  large  dose;  if  they  weigh  about  100  pounds, 
they  should  be  given  the  small  dose.  The  drugs  should 
be  mixed  and  divided  into  the  same  number  of  powders 
as  there  are  lots  of  hogs.  Ground  feed  is  placed  in  the 
trough  and  dampened  with  water  and  the  powder  sprinkled 


476  Pork  Production 

evenly  over  it.  The  hogs  are  then  allowed  to  eat  the 
feed. 

The  lung  worm,  Strongylus  paradoxus,  is  a  common 
parasite  of  young  hogs.  It  is  a  small  hair-like  worm 
varying  in  length  from  .6  to  1.6  inches,  and  usually 
is  found  in  the  small  bronchial  tubes  mixed  with 
mucus. 

The  first  symptom  occurring  in  verminous  bronchitis  is 
coughing  on  leaving  the  bed,  or  after  exercising.  In 
badly  infested  hogs,  paroxysms  of  coughing  occur  and 
considerable  mucus  may  be  forced  out.  The  appetite 
of  the  pig  remains  good,  and  hogs  that  are  well  cared  for 
do  not  become  unthrifty. 

The  preventive  treatment  is  the  same  as  recommended 
for  intestinal  worms.  Hogs  that  receive  special  care  such 
as  all  the  feed  that  they  can  eat  and  well-ventilated 
sleeping  quarters  and  a  clean  dry  bed,  do  not  become 
stunted  or  unthrifty  when  infested  with  lung  worms. 
There  is  no  effective  line  of  medicinal  treatment  for  this 
disease. 

The  kidney  worm,  Sclerostoma  pinguicola,  is  commonly 
found  in  the  fat  which  surrounds  the  kidney.  It  is  from 
1  to  1.5  inches  long  and  appears  dark  or  mottled  when 
seen  against  the  white  fatty  tissue.  This  parasite  may 
irritate  the  parts  that  it  infests,  but  does  not  seem  to 
produce  visible  symptoms  of  disease.  Although  paralysis 
of  the  hind  parts  is  attributed  to  the  kidney  worm  by 
many  stock-men,  there  is  no  evidence  that  would  indicate 
this. 

Because  of  the  location  of  this  parasite,  no  medicinal 
application  will  destroy  it.  The  preventive  treatment  is 
the  same  as  recommended  for  controlling  the  spread  of 
other  round  worms. 


The  Prevention  of  Hog  Diseases  477 

INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

Hog  cholera  is  the  commonest  infectious  disease  occur- 
ring in  farm  animals.  Tuberculosis  is  less  prevalent 
among  hogs  than  cattle.  In  dairy  sections  of  the  country, 
where  hogs  are  exposed  to  this  disease  by  feeding  after 
tubercular  cattle  or  drinking  milk  from  tubercular  herds, 
a  very  large  percentage  become  infected. 

Some  of  the  more  common  infectious  diseases,  such  as 
infectious  pneumonia,  necroenteritis,  and  hemorrhagic 
septicemia,  are  not  very  well  understood.  The  latter 
group  of  diseases  may  cause  serious  loss  in  feeding  hogs 
if  the  herd  is  not  well  cared  for  and  the  yards  and  houses 
are  insanitary.  The  rather  common  practice  of  disposing 
of  the  apparently  well  hogs  in  a  herd  affected  with  infec- 
tious pneumonia  or  necroenteritis  by  marketing  them, 
has  resulted  in  stock  cars  and  public  stock-yards  becoming 
permanently  infected  with  the  germs  of  these  diseases. 
This  condition  is  responsible  for  the  prevalence  of  these 
so-called  "mixed  infections"  in  sections  of  the  country 
where  hogs  are  shipped  from  public  stock-yards  to  the 
country  for  feeding  purposes. 

Hog  cholera.     (Fig.  20.) 

The  specific  cause  of  hog  cholera  is  an  ultra-microscopic 
organism  that  is  present  in  the  body  excretions  and  tissues 
of  cholera  hogs.  This  virus  cannot  be  cultivated  in  the 
laboratory  or  seen  with  the  microscope,  and  the  name 
ultra-microscopic  virus  is  used  in  speaking  of  it.  The 
presence  of  this  virus  in  filtrates  of  cholera  blood,  that 
are  free  from  any  visible  organism,  can  be  proved  by 
inoculating  susceptible  hogs.  Typical  hog  cholera  is 
produced,  and  hogs  that  are  exposed  to  the  sick  animals 


478 


Pork  Production 


promptly  develop  this  disease.  Bacteria  may  invade  the 
tissues  of  the  sick  hog.  These  are  usually  termed  second- 
ary-invading bacteria,  and  they  seem  to  have  an  impor- 
tant part  in  producing  hemorrhages  in  the  tissues  and 
intestinal  ulcers.  Bacillius  suipestifer  and  B.  suisepticus 
are  the  most  common  bacteria  found  in  the  tissues  of 
cholera  hogs. 

Hog  cholera  is  spread  by  the  susceptible  animal  coming 
in  direct  or  indirect  contact  with  the  cholera  hog.    The 


FIG.  20.  —  A  hog  having  acute  cholera. 

methods  of  indirect  contact  are  as  follows :  dogs  and 
birds  feeding  on  the  carcasses  of  cholera  hogs  and  carry- 
ing parts  of  carcasses  into  neighboring  yards ;  feeding  gar- 
bage containing  scraps  of  pork ;  small  streams  receiving 
filth  or  sewage  from  neighboring  hog-yards;  transport- 
ing hogs  in  uncleaned  stock-cars,  and  from  public  stock- 
yards to  the  country ;  improper  methods  of  vaccination ; 
and  carrying  filth  on  wheels  of  wagons  and  shoes  of  per- 
sons from  infected  to  non-infected  yards. 


The  Prevention  of  Hog  Diseases  479 

The  early  symptoms  occurring  in  hog  cholera  are 
elevation  of  body  temperature,  depression,  weakness, 
and  staggering.  Depression  and  weakness  are  especially 
noticeable  when  the  hog  is  forced  to  get  up  from  its  bed. 
Vomiting,  diarrhoea,  or  rapid  labored  breathing  may  occur. 

The  early  symptoms  in  hog  cholera  closely  resemble 
those  occurring  in  other  infectious  diseases.  Other 
means  of  diagnosis  must  be  employed.  The  history  of 
the  outbreak  and  character  of  the  lesions  found  on  post 
mortem  examination  are  more  important  than  the  symp- 
toms. A  fatally  sick  hog  should  be  killed  for  post  mortem 
examination,  as  the  lesions  of  disease  are  not  changed 
by  decomposition  of  the  tissues  as  is  the  case  if  the  hog 
has  been  dead  for  a  short  time. 

It  is  very  necessary  to  make  an  early  diagnosis  of  any 
disease.  If  recognized  early,  curative  treatment  can  be 
employed  at  a  time  when  it  will  do  the  most  good,  and 
in  the  case  of  hog  cholera,  its  spread  to  neighboring  herds 
can  be  prevented.  Stock-men  are  beginning  to  recognize 
the  importance  of  handling  hog  cholera  the  same  as  other 
infectious  diseases,  and  employing  experienced  veterina- 
rians to  diagnose  it  and  recommend  measures  of  control. 

The  most  important  measures  for  the  control  of  hog 
cholera  are  the  quarantining  of  farms  where  outbreaks 
of  the  disease  occur;  the  reporting  of  all  cholera  herds 
to  the  proper  health  officers;  the  slaughter  of  fatally 
sick  hogs  and  those  having  the  chronic  form  of  the  disease ; 
the  vaccination  of  the  other  hogs  in  the  herd ;  the  crema- 
tion of  the  carcasses  of  all  cholera  hogs ;  and  the  cleaning 
and  disinfecting  of  the  yards. 

Stock-cars  should  be  disinfected  immediately  after 
unloading,  and  public  stock-yards  quarantined.  Car 
shipments  of  feeding  and  stock  hogs  should  be  unloaded 


480  Pork  Production 

in  yards  set  off  for  this  purpose.  These  yards  should  be 
cleaned  and  disinfected  after  each  shipment.  All  shipped- 
in  hogs  should  be  vaccinated  by  the  double  method,  and 
quarantined  for  at  least  three  weeks. 

If  the  houses  and  yards  can  be  cleaned  and  disinfected 
and  their  location  does  not  endanger  other  herds,  the  sick 
animals  should  not  be  moved  to  new  quarters.  If  the 
houses  are  old  and  poorly  constructed  and  the  yards 
covered  with  such  litter  as  corn-cobs,  manure  piles,  and 
old  straw  stacks,  it  is  advisable  to  provide  more  comfort- 
able and  sanitary  quarters.  When  the  weather  is  warm, 
a  low  shed  large  enough  to  accommodate  all  of  the  hogs 
and  an  open  field  are  best.  This  furnishes  protection 
from  the  sun  and  a  clean  range.  Clean,  roomy,  dry,  and 
well- ventilated  sleeping  quarters,  free  from  drafts,  and  well- 
drained  yards  are  best  when  the  weather  is  cool  and  wet. 

A  very  light  ration  should  be  given.  It  is  not  advis- 
able to  feed  kitchen  slops,  skim-milk,  or  buttermilk. 
Intestinal  antiseptics  should  be  used.  Sulfocarbolate 
tablets,  or  copper  sulfate  may  be  given  with  the  drinking 
water  or  slop.  If  copper  sulfate  is  used  as  an  intestinal 
antiseptic,  4  ounces  may  be  dissolved  in  1  gallon  of  drink- 
ing water,  and  1  quart  of  this  stock  solution  should  be 
added  to  each  10  gallons  of  water  or  slop.  The  troughs 
should  be  disinfected  and  turned  bottom  up  after  water- 
ing or  feeding  the  animals.  This  method  of  feeding 
should  be  practiced  as  soon  as  symptoms  of  cholera  de- 
velop, and  continued  for  at  least  one  week  after  recovery. 

The  first  step  in  disinfecting  hog-houses  and  yards  is 
thoroughly  to  clean  the  walls,  floors,  and  yards.  Dust 
and  dirt  should  be  brushed  or  scraped  from  the  walls 
and  floors.  If  the  floor  is  earth,  the  surface  should  be 
removed  to  a  depth  of  several  inches  and  covered  with 


The  Prevention  of  Hog  Diseases  481 

quicklime.  The  yards  should  be  cleaned;  piles  of  old 
lumber  and  rails  hauled  away ;  portable  hog-houses  moved 
about,  so  as  to  permit  cleaning  under  them ;  straw  stacks, 
straw  sheds,  and  manure  piles  hauled  to  a  field  and  plowed 
under  if  possible;  and  muddy  places  drained,  filled,  or 
fenced  off.  If  there  are  any  places  into  which  hogs 
crawl  or  sleep  under  buildings,  they  should  be  cleaned  if 
possible,  or  closed  up.  The  yard  or  yards  should  be 
covered  with  quicklime,  and  a  disinfecting  solution 
applied  to  the  walls  and  floors  of  the  hog-houses.  The 
most  reliable  disinfectant  is  3  per  cent  water  solution  of 
liquor  cresolis  compound  with  sufficient  hydrated  lime 
added  to  make  a  very  thin  whitewash.  This  should  be 
applied  to  the  cleaned  surface  with  a  spray  pump.  The 
feeding  floors,  troughs,  and  self-feeders  should  receive 
frequent  disinfecting. 

The  double  method  of  vaccinating  hogs  for  permanent 
immunity  is  practiced  in  sections  of  the  country  where 
the  disease  is  common.  This  method  of  vaccination 
consists  in  injecting  a  certain  quantity  of  anti-hog-cholera 
serum  and  hog  cholera  blood  at  different  points  beneath 
the  skin  or  subcutaneously.  Serum  only  or  the  single 
method  of  vaccination  or  treatment  may  be  used  for  pro- 
ducing a  temporary  immunity,  or  treating  cholera  hogs. 

Tuberculosis. 

Tuberculosis  is  one  of  the  oldest  animal  diseases  on 
record.  It  is  only  within  the  last  few  years  that  stock- 
men have  realized  the  extent  to  which  tuberculosis  has 
spread  among  swine.  The  direct  or  specific  cause  is 
Koch's  Bacillus  tuberculosis.  This  bacillus  has  greater 
vitality  than  the  hog  cholera  virus,  and  it  is  able  to  resist 
high  temperatures,  changes  in  temperature,  drying,  and 
2i 


482  Pork  Production 

putrefaction  to  a  greater  degree  than  most  non-spore- 
producing  germs. 

Animals  that  have  generalized  tuberculosis  may  dis- 
seminate the  germs  of  the  disease  in  the  secretions  from 
the  air  passages  and  udder  and  in  the  feces.  If  the 
diseased  tissue  opens  directly  into  any  part  of  the  air 
passages,  the  discharges  may  be  coughed  up  or  swallowed 
and  eliminated  in  the  feces.  Open  intestinal  tuberculosis 
infects  the  feces.  Milk  becomes  infected  with  the  tubercle 
bacillus  through  contamination  with  filth,  and  the  dis- 
charge from  broken-down  tubercular  tissue  in  the  udder. 

The  tubercular  cow,  steer,  and  sow  are  responsible 
for  the  prevalence  of  this  disease  among  hogs.  Allowing 
hogs  to  run  after  cattle  is  sure  to  result  in  infection  of  a 
large  percentage  of  them  if  there  are  any  open  cases  of  tu- 
berculosis in  the  herd. 

A  tubercular  brood  sow  is  sure  to  communicate  the 
disease  to  her  litter.  If  the  surroundings  are  insanitary, 
a  common  condition  of  hog-yards  and  houses,  the  disease 
spreads  and  develops  very  rapidly. 

Tuberculosis  cannot  be  recognized  in  the  early  stage  of 
the  disease  by  the  symptoms  alone.  Later,  when  the 
disease  becomes  generalized,  characteristic  symptoms 
may  develop.  The  only  reliable  method  of  diagnosis  is 
the  tuberculin  test. 

There  is  no  curative  treatment  for  swine  tuberculosis. 
The  disease  may  be  stamped  out  in  the  herd  by  prac- 
ticing the  following  methods :  The  hogs  should  be  tuber- 
culin-tested by  an  experienced  person,  all  reactors  killed, 
the  non-reactors  marketed,  and  the  quarters  cleaned 
and  disinfected.  The  hog-houses  and  yards  should  not  be 
used  for  at  least  six  months  after  they  have  been  given  a 
thorough  cleaning  and  disinfecting. 


INDEX 


Acreage  of  corn  for  "hogging-off," 
236. 

Afterbirth,  removal  of,  73. 

Alfalfa,  sows  and  pigs  on,  Plate  V  ; 
supplements  to  corn  for  pigs  on, 
201 ;  vs,  clover,  156 ;  vs.  rape, 
160;  vs.  sweet  clover,  161. 

Alfalfa  hay,  methods  of  feeding, 
to  pregnant  sows,  46,  48,  Plate  II ; 
wintering  bred  gilts  on,  45  ;  win- 
tering yearling  and  mature  sows 
on,  47. 

Andrews,  365. 

Artichokes  for  swine,  326. 

Artificial,  heat  for  sows  at  farrow- 
ing time,  70 ;  wallow  for  sows  in 
summer,  121. 

B 

Bacon,  factors  affecting  firmness  of, 
402. 

Bacon  hog,  carcass  of  model,  Plate 
VIII ;  condition  of,  404  ;  form 
of,  403;  score-card  for,  403; 
size  of,  403  ;  quality  of,  404. 

Bacon  production,  barley  for,  283. 

Bacon  type,  market  requirements 
of,  401. 

Barley,  alone  vs.  meat-meal  for 
fattening  pigs,  283  ;  composition 
of,  280;  rations  for  bacon  pro- 
duction, 283  ;  vs.  corn  for  fatten- 
ing pigs,  281,  282. 

Beal  and  Rose,  329. 

Bedding,  kind  and  amount  for 
farrowing  sow,  70. 

Beets,  sugar,  for  swine,  326. 

Berkshire,  history  and  characteris- 
tics of,  425;  pigs,  Plate  III; 
sow,  Plate  X :  sow  with  litter, 
Plate  XII. 


Birth,  trouble  with  gilts  at,  73. 

Bliss  and  Lee,  289,  290. 

Blue-grass,  characteristics  as  a 
forage,  174 ;  and  timothy,  best 
proportion  of  tankage  to  feed 
with,  204  ;  and  timothy  vs.  clover 
and  alfalfa,  175 ;  results  from 
pasturing,  176. 

Boar,  age  to  use,  20 ;  amount  to 
feed,  during  breeding  season,  16 ; 
birth  weight  of  pigs,  108 ;  exer- 
cise during  breeding  season,  16 ; 
feeding  in  winter,  64 ;  food  de- 
mands during  breeding  season, 
14  ;  influence  of,  on  birth  weight 
of  pigs,  111 ;  influence  of,  on  size 
of  litter,  103 ;  number  of  sows 
bred  to,  26 ;  rations  during  the 
breeding  season,  15  ;  on  the  mar- 
ket, 375  ;  suitable  conditions  for, 
Plate  I ;  vigor  of,  103. 

Boars,  judging  young,  416. 

Bone,  effect  of  rations  on  size  and 
breaking  strength  of,  139. 

Bran,  wheat,  composition  of,  271. 

Braxton  and  Jones,  115. 

Breed,  relation  of,  to  size  of  litter, 
104. 

Breeding,  principles  of,  431 ;  sys- 
tems of,  441. 

Breeding  crate,  advantages  of,  25. 

Breeding  herd,  general  management 
of,  33  ;  feeding  pigs  intended  for, 
220 ;  housing,  in  winter,  34 ;  self- 
feeder  for  pigs  intended  for,  221. 

Breeding  hogs,  breeder's  require- 
ments, 406  ;  judging,  406 ;  score- 
card  for,  407 ;  standard  of  ex- 
cellence for,  406. 

Breeding  season,  feeding  and  hand- 
ling sows  during  the,  10. 

Breeding  stock,  principles  in  the 
selection  of,  449. 


483 


484 


Index 


Breeds  of  hogs,  420. 

Breed-type,  characteristics  in  judg- 
ing, 415. 

Brewer's  and  dried  distiller's  grains 
for  swine,  319. 

Burdie,  383. 

Burk,  309. 

Burnett,  138. 

Burns,  313,  319. 

Butler,  383. 

Buttermilk,  and  skim-milk,  com- 
position, 244 ;  or  skim-milk, 
money  value  of,  242 ;  value  of, 
compared  with  tankage,  249  ;  or 
skim-milk  as  a  supplement  to 
corn,  241 ;  vs.  skim-milk  for 
fattening  pigs,  245  :  vs.  tankage, 
248. 


Canada  field  peas,  oats,  clover,  and 

rape,  as  forage,  166. 
Cane  for  fattening  pigs,  297. 
Cane-sorghum,    characteristics    of, 

for  forage,  177. 
Carcass,    of    a    model    bacon    hog, 

Plate   VIII ;       weight,  condition, 

shape,  and  quality  demanded  by 

market,  394. 
Carlyle,  87,  114,  140. 
Carmichael,  B.  E.,  and  Eastwood, 

200;      and   Robison,   346;      and 

Ridgeway,  204. 
Carmichael,  W.  J.,   106,   107,   108, 

109,  213,  346. 
Carrots  for  swine,  326. 
Cars,    bedding,    365 ;      number    of 

double-deck,    365 ;       number    of 

hogs  to,  365;    ordering,  364. 
Castration,  471-473. 
Cereal  grains,  composition  of,  280; 

for  growing  and  fattening  pigs, 

280. 

Charcoal  for  nursing  sows,  82. 
Chester- White,  boar,  Plate  X;  his- 
tory and  characteristics  of,  426. 
Cholera,  a  hog  having  acute,  figure 

2,  478. 

Chufas  as  a  forage,  185. 
Clark,  290,  320,  322,  320, 


Classes  of  hogs,  369. 

Clinton,  321. 

Clover,  alsike,  for  forage,  157; 
burr,  for  forage,  158 ;  corn  alone 
on,  205  ;  crimson,  for  forage,  158 ; 
Japan,  for  forage,  158  ;  mammoth, 
for  forage,  157 ;  medium  red,  154 ; 
pigs  in,  Plate  V ;  sweet,  for  for- 
age, 158;  vs.  alfalfa,  156;  vs. 
rape,  156. 

Cochel,  297. 

Combination  forage  crops,  166. 

Condition,  of  brood  sows,  413;  of 
fat  barrows,  399. 

Constipation,  avoiding,  with  sows 
at  farrowing  time,  74. 

Cooking,  feed  for  pregnant  sows, 
63 ;  for  fattening  pigs,  342. 

Corn,  amount  and  proportion  of 
old  and  new,  214 ;  as  a  pig  feed, 
133  ;  by-products  of,  300 ;  carry- 
ing capacity  of  an  acre  of  stand- 
ing, 238 ;  composition  of,  255, 
280 ;  deficiencies  of,  for  pigs,  133  ; 
ear  vs.  shelled  vs.  ground,  336 ; 
for  pregnant  sows,  40 ;  ground  vs. 
shelled,  334,  337  ;  hogging-down, 
231 ;  hogging-down,  and  soy- 
beans, Plate  VI. ;  hogging-down 
vs.  yard  feeding,  228,  229 ;  illus- 
trating deficiencies  of,  Plate  IV  ; 
methods  of  balancing,  for  gilts, 
50;  monthly  fluctuations  in 
price  of,  215  ;  soaking  and  grind- 
ing, 335;  substitutes  for,  300; 
supplemental  forage  crops  for 
pigs  hogging-down,  332  ;  supple- 
ments for,  for  bred  gilts,  511. 

Corn  alone,  vs.  corn  and  forage,  147 ; 
vs.  corn  and  linseed-oil  meal,  256 ; 
vs.  corn  and  meat-meal,  134 ;  vs. 
corn  and  protein  supplement, 
277 ;  vs.  corn  and  soybeans  or 
tankage,  202;  vs.  corn  and  a 
supplement  for  pigs  on  timothy, 
203 ;  vs.  corn  and  a  supplement 
for  pigs  on  alfalfa,  201 ;  vs.  corn 
and  skim-milk  or  buttermilk,  241 ; 
vs.  corn  and  soybeans,  317;  vs. 
corn  and  tankage,  256;  vs.  com 


Index 


485 


and  tankage  for  pigs  on  clover, 
205 ;  vs.  corn  and  tankage  for 
pigs  on  rape,  200 ;  vs.  corn  and 
wheat  shorts  or  middlings,  273 ; 
vs.  ground  cowpeas,  316. 

Corn-belt,  number  of  hogs  in,  1. 

Corn  feed-meal,  303 ;  vs.  corn- 
meal,  305.  , 

Corn  germ-meal  as  a  substitute 
for  corn,  306. 

Corn  gluten-meal  and  corn  gluten- 
feed,  307. 

Corn-meal  and  skim-milk  to  pro- 
duce 100  lb.  gain,  243. 

Cost,  and  rate  of  gain  in  forage  and 
dry-lot  periods,  213  ;  distribu- 
tion of,  358;  general  observa- 
tions on,  359 ;  of  feeding  mature 
bred  sow  in  winter,  66 ;  of  feed- 
ing open  gilts  in  winter,  67 ;  of 
feeding  pigs  to  market  weight, 
225 ;  of  feeding  pregnant  gilts 
in  winter,  67 ;  of  feeding  sow 
and  litter,  95 ;  of  marketing, 
367;  of  producing  pork,  360; 
of  raising  gilt  to  breeding  age, 
226 ;  of  summer  feeding  mature 
bred  sow,  125 ;  of  summer  feed- 
ing mature  open  sow,  126 ;  of 
summer  feeding  open  yearling 
sow,  127  ;  relation  of  rate  of  gain 
to,  212. 

Cottonseed  meal,  characteristics 
of,  318 ;  dangers  of  feeding,  318. 

Cowpea  forage,   characteristics  of, 

182  ;  results  from  pasturing,  185  ; 
vs.  corn,  316  ;   vs.  dry-lot  feeding, 

183  ;    vs.  velvet  beans,  187. 
Cracklings,    pork,    composition   of, 

255. 
Cross-breeding,  definition  of,  443 ; 

effect  of,  on  birth  weight  of  pigs, 

110;     effect  of,  on  size  of  litter, 

101 ;   objections  to,  444. 
Culls,  fattening,  122. 
Curtiss,  192. 
Cuts,    location    of,    on    live    hog, 

Plate    IX;       pork,    Plate   VIII; 

prices    of   wholesale    and   retail, 

388. 


Dairy,  by-products  for  pigs,  240; 
precautions  in  feeding,  252. 

Day,  250,  251,  285,  402,  403. 

Demand,  effect  of,  on  price,  387, 
390. 

Diarrhoea  or  scours  in  pigs,  467, 
468. 

Dietrich,  369. 

Dinwiddie,  318. 

Diseases,  the  prevention  of,  hog, 
Chapter  XX,  458 ;  of  the  diges- 
tive system,  463  ;  of  the  nervous 
system,  470;  of  the  respiratory 
organs,  468. 

Disinfectants  for  hog-houses,  462. 

Distillers  and  brewers  dried  grains 
for  swine,  319. 

Dressed  hogs,  prices  of,  388. 

Dressing  percentage,  of  butcher 
hogs,  371 ;  of  first  prize  carcasses, 
393  ;  of  light  hogs,  373  ;  of  pack- 
ing hogs,  372  ;  relation  of,  to  sell- 
ing value,  393 ;  relation  to  live 
weight,  398. 

Dried  blood,  composition  of,  255. 

Duggar,  313,  316. 

Duroc-Jersey,  champion  pen  of 
barrows,  Plate  XII ;  history  and 
characteristics  of,  423;  sow, 
Plate  X. 

Dvorachek  and  Fowler,  312. 


E 


Earle  and  Orr,  323. 

Eastwood,  286,  295. 

Eggs  (ova),  431. 

Emmer  (spelt) ,  composition  of,  280. 

Equipment,  interest,  depreciation, 
insurance  on,  352. 

Eward,  42,  50,  153,  199,  311,  383; 
and  Dunn,  213,  302,  308,  346; 
and  Kennedy,  158, 161 :  Kennedy, 
and  Kildee,  205,  206,  228,  230, 
238. 

Exercise,  for  breeding  herd  in  win- 
ter, 37 ;  for  sows  at  farrowing 
time,  72 ;  for  young  pigs,  76. 


486 


Index 


F 


Fall  pigs,  advantages  of,  118. 
Farrowing,  care  at,  72,  121. 
Feeders,  375  ;    judging,  418. 

Feeding,  before  shipping,  364; 
dangers  of  full,  220;  effect  of, 
on  size  of  litter,  100;  full  vs. 
limited,  on  forage,  211,  212,  213, 
214 ;  general  systems  of,  130, 
131 ;  hand,  343  ;  methods  of, 
343  ;  relation  of  time  of  market- 
ing to  system  of,  216 ;  two 
methods  of,  Plate  VII. 

Feeds,  preparation  of,  and  methods 
of  feeding,  333 ;  preparation  of, 
for  sows  in  winter,  62. 

Feet  and  legs  of  brood  sow,  412. 

Feterita,  composition  of,  280 ;  for 
fattening  pigs,  297. 

Field  management  in  hogging-down 
corn,  236. 

Fisher  and  King,  189. 

Food  demands  of  pigs,  132. 

Forage,  acre  cost  of  growing,  235 ; 
advantages  of ,  141  ;  benefits  from 
growing,  148 ;     choosing  a,  153  ; 
composition   of,    194,    196,    197 
crops  for  sows  in  summer,   122 
essentials  of  an  ideal,   153;     for 
Alabama,  193  ;   for  Indiana,  189 
for  Missouri,  190,  191 ;  for  North 
Carolina,  192  ;  for  North  Dakota 
191 ;       for    sub-humid    districts 
192  ;    mixtures  for  fall  pigs,  167 
methods    of    feeding    on,     194 
proportions  of  nitrogenous    sup- 
plements on,  207  ;    recommenda- 
tions for  plantings,    189 ;      sum- 
mary results  from,   plantings  at 
Alabama,  188;     supplements  to 
for     hogging-down     corn,     232 
value  of  an  acre  of,  145. 

Forage  feeding,  dry -lot  vs.,  142,  143 

Forage  season,  rate  and  cost  o: 
gains  during,  210. 

Forbes,  140. 

Form,  of  bacon  pig,  403 :  of  brooc 
sow,  411 ;  of  fat  barrow,  393. 

Freight  rates,  367. 


French,  326. 
Funk,  383. 


G 


jains,  rate  and  cost  of,  in  forage 
period,  210;  rate  and  cost  of 
entire  feeding  period,  212  ;  rela- 
tion of  rate  of,  to  cost  of,  212 ; 
relation  of  rate  and  cost  of,  to 
intensity  of  feeding,  211. 

Gastro-enteritis,  466-467. 

Gaumitz,  Wilson,  and  Bassett,  228. 
237. 

Gentry,  283,  394,  395. 

Germ-cells,  431. 

Gestation,  length  of  period  of,  18; 
table,  30. 

Gilt,  age  to  breed,  19  ;  cost  of  feed- 
ing from  weaning  to  breeding  age, 
226  ;  feed  cost  of  wintering  preg- 
nant, 67  ;  feed  cost  of  wintering 
open,  67  ;  feeding  pregnant,  39  ; 
feeding  open,  64 ;  with  only  two 
pairs  good  teats,  Plate  IV. 

Gluten-feed  for  fattening  pigs,  308. 

Gluten-meal,  307. 

Good,  202;  and  Smith,  289, 290, 317. 

Governments,  375. 

Grain,  amount  of,  to  feed  pigs  on 
forage,  208,  209 ;  limited  vs.  full 
feeding  of,  on  forage,  214. 

Grains,  composition  of  cereal,  280 ; 
for  pregnant  sows,  43. 

Gray,  Duggar  and  Ridgeway,  193, 
136 ;  Summers  and  Shook,  165. 

Grinding  corn,  average  results  from, 

338  ;  percentage  of  feed  saved  by, 

339  ;   value  of,  as  affected  by  age 
of  pigs,  339. 

Grinding  and  soaking  small  grains, 

341. 

Grisdale,  283,  289,  325,  326. 
Growth,    importance    of    capacity 

for  rapid,  455. 

H 

Hall,  395;  Simpson  and  Doty, 
362,  367,  388. 

Hampshire,  history  and  character- 
istics of,  423  ;  sow,  Plate  X. 


Index 


487 


Hand-feeding,  a  practical  conven- 
ience in,  Plate  VII;  vs.  self- 
feeding,  346. 

Hay,  legume,  for  pregnant  sows,  44. 

Heat,  cause  of,  432 ;  significance 
of,  17  ;  time  of  occurrence,  17. 

Henry,  287,  293,  325 ;  and  Morri- 
son, 66,  116,  151,  243,  244,  250, 
251,  255,  271,  279,  280,  293,  297, 
318,  334,  342. 

Herd-records,  91. 

Heredity,  the  law  of,  431. 

Hernia,  scrotal,  473. 

Hog,  points  of,  Plate  IX. 

Hog-cholera,  477-481. 

Hogging-down  corn,  experiences  of 
farmer  with,  230  ;  and  soybeans, 
Plate  VI ;  supplemental  forages 
for,  232  ;  vs.  yard  feeding,  229. 

Hog-house  treatment,  474. 

Hog-houses,  disinfectants  for,  462. 

Hogs,  breeds  of,  420  ;  butcher,  370  ; 
crippled,  on  the  market,  365 ; 
dead,  375  ;  judging,  391 ;  light, 
372 ;  market  requirements  of 
finished,  393 ;  packing,  371 ; 
prime  heavy,  370  ;  relative  prices 
of,  5  ;  types  of,  392  ;  variation  in 
number  per  capita,  389. 

Hominy  feed,  300 ;  vs.  corn-meal, 
301,  302. 

Hunter,  192. 


Ideals,  in  herd  improvement,  454. 

In-breeding,  definition,  445  ;  safety 
and  value  of,  447. 

Individuality  relation  of,  to  size  of 
litter,  104  ;  value  of,  in  selection, 
450. 

Infectious  diseases,  477-482. 

Inflammation  of  stomach  and  in- 
testines, or  gastro-enteritis,  466- 
467. 


Jones  and  Proulx,  327. 

Jordan,  133. 

Judge,  training  necessary  to,  391. 


Judging,  breeding  hogs  of  the  lard 
type,  406 ;  finished  barrows  of 
the  bacon  type,  401 ;  finished 
fat  barrows,  393;  feeders,  417; 
gilts  and  young  boars,  416  ;  im- 
portance of,  391 ;  score-card  in, 
395. 

K 

Kafir,  composition  of,  280 ;  vs.  corn, 
296  ;  vs.  corn-meal,  297  ;  for  fat- 
tening pigs,  297. 

Kaoliang,  composition  of,  280 ; 
for  fattening  pigs,  297 ;  vs.  corn, 
299. 

Kennedy,  and  Robbins,  134,  203, 
335  ;  and  Bouska,  253. 

Kidney  worm,  476. 

Killing  records  of  butcher  hogs,  395. 

King,  190. 


Lazenby,  322. 

Lespedeza  for  forage,  158. 

Lewis,  L.  L.,  researches  of,  18,  432. 

Like  begets  like,  433. 

Linseed-oil  meal,  composition  of 
old  and  new  process,  265  ;  money 
value  of,  compared  with  shorts, 
267  ;  money  value  of,  compared 
with  tankage,  259,  266;  vs. 
shorts  or  middlings,  267  ;  vs.  soy- 
bean meal,  269  ;  vs.  tankage,  258, 
266. 

Litter,  care  and  feeding  of  sow 
and,  69  ;  cost  of  feeding  sow  and, 
91 ;  effect  of  age  of  sow  on  size 
of,  96 ;  effect  of  cross-breeding 
on  size  of,  101 ;  effect  of  feeding 
and  condition  of  sow  on  size  of, 
100 ;  influence  of  boar  on  size  of, 
102 ;  influence  of  type,  breed, 
and  individuality  on  size  of,  104  ; 
plans  for  marking,  77  ;  relation 
of  size  of,  to  number  of  dead  pigs, 
106 ;  relation  of  size  of,  to  birth 
weight  of  pigs,  111. 

Litters,  number  of,  in  year,  117. 

Livestock,  average  prices  paid  for,  5. 

Lung  worm,  476. 


488 


Index 


M 

MacKenzie  and  Marshall,  17. 

Mangels  for  swine,  326. 

Management,  of  breeding  herd  in 
winter,  33 ;  of  pigs  during  the 
summer,  223. 

Market,  classes  of  hogs  on,  368 ; 
importance  of  ability  to  top  the, 
456  ;  receipts  on  Chicago,  377  ; 
selling  hogs  on,  366  ;  weight  and 
type  of  pig  desired  by,  128,  129. 

Marketing,  and  markets,  362 ; 
costs  of,  367  ;  time  of,  affected  by 
system  of  feeding,  216,  218. 

Markets,  362. 

Mating,  general  systems  of,  23 ; 
time  in  day,  25. 

Meat  and  bone  products,  composi- 
tion of,  255. 

Meat-meal,  see  Tankage. 

Michael  and  Kennedy,  331. 

Middlings,  or  shorts,  vs.  tankage, 
260;  white  or  flour,  composi- 
tion of,  271. 

Milk,  composition  of  sow's,  116 ; 
production  by  brood  sows,  113, 
114. 

Milo,  composition  of,  280 ;  for 
fattening  pigs,  297. 

Minerals,  for  nursing  sows,  82 ;   for 

pregnant  sows  and  gilts,  54. 
Molasses,  black  strap,  as  a  substi- 
tute for  corn,  320 ;     sugar-beet, 
for  fattening  shotes,  321. 
Moore  Bros.,  91. 

Motor  truck,  shipping  hogs  by,  368 
Mumford  and  Weaver,  157,  191. 


N 

Needle  teeth,  74. 

Nutrition,  relation  to  birth  weigh 
of  pigs,  112. 

O 

Oats,  as  a  forage  crop  in  mixtures 
168 ;  best  proportion  of  meat 
meal  to  feed  with,  206 ;  clove 
and  rape  with,  168 ;  Canada  fiel 


peas,  rape,  and,  169 ;  composi- 
tion of,  280;  effect  of  feeding 
different  proportions  of,  with 
corn,  295 ;  vetch  and  rape  with, 
168. 

Oat-meal,  as  a  supplement  to  corn, 
311. 


'acking-house    by-products,    com- 
position of,  254. 

""aralysis  of  posterior  portion  of 
body,  partial  or  complete,  470— 
471. 

Parasites  of  hogs,  473-476. 
^asteurization  of  dairy  by-products, 

252. 
Peanut  forage  vs.   dry-lot  feeding, 

186. 
Peanut-oil    feed,     unhulled,    as    a 

supplement  to  milo,  310. 
Peanut-oil  meal,   as  a  supplement 
to  milo,  309,  310;    vs.  linseed-oil 
meal  vs.  tankage,  311. 
Peanuts,    characteristics    of,    as    a 
forage,  185 ;    effect  on  quality  of 
pork,  315  ;  and  corn  vs.  rice  bran, 
313. 

Pedigree,  judging  the  value  of,  452  ; 
of  in-bred  animal,  445 ;    method 
of  writing,  451. 
Pen-holders,  369. 
Performance,  value  of,  in  selecting 

breeding  stock,  453. 
Peters,  W.  H.,  49. 
Pig,  cost  of  market,  357 ;    cost  of, 
at   weaning,    356 ;      weight   and 
type  desired  by  market,  128. 
Pig-creep,  83. 
Pig  eaters,  75. 

Pig-nest,  framework  for,  70. 
Pigs,  birth  weight  of,  107 ;  cost  of 
feeding  to  market  weight,  225 ; 
cereal  grains  for  fattening,  280 ; 
in  clover,  Plate  V  ;  dressing  per- 
centage of,  374 ;  effect  of  cross- 
breeding on  birth  weight  of,  110; 
early  or  late,  21 ;  fattening  for 
market,  239  ;  feeding  young,  84  ; 
gains  from  birth  to  weaning,  86 ; 


Index 


489 


number  of,  at  birth,  98 ;  number 
raised,  105 ;  number  dead  af- 
fected by  size  of  litter,  106; 
number  of,  required  to  hog- 
down  an  acre  of  corn,  237 ;  per- 
centage farrowed  raised,  105 ; 
relation  of  age  of  sow  to  birth 
weight  of,  108,  109,  110;  rela- 
tion of  sex  to  birth  weight  of, 
107,  108 ;  in  rape,  Plate  V ;  on 
self-feeder,  Plate  VII ;  ringing, 
223 ;  roasting,  375 ;  variation 
in  number  of,  99  ;  weaning,  85. 

Plumb  and  Anderson,  285,  288; 
and  Van  Norman,  322,  342. 

Poland-China,  history  and  charac- 
teristics of,  421. 

Pregnancy,  length  of  period  of,  18. 

Prepotency,  440. 

Prevention  of  hog  diseases,  Chapter 
XX,  458. 

Price,  annual  fluctuations  in,  of 
hogs,  389  ;  monthly  fluctuations 
of  corn,  215  ;  seasonal  variations 
in,  of  hogs,  387 ;  supply  and, 
fluctuations,  376. 

Prolificacy,  importance  in  herd, 
454. 

Protein  supplements,  and  corn  vs. 
corn  alone,  276 ;  relative  value 
of,  277  ;  proportions  required  to 
balance  corn,  279. 


Q 

Quality,  in  brood  sows,  413 ;   in  fat 

barrows,  400. 
Quarantine    laws,    relation    of,    to 

disease,  462-463. 


R 

Rape,  characteristics  of,   162 ;     vs. 

alfalfa,    160;       vs.    clover,    166; 

early  vs.  late,  164 ;    pigs  in,  Plate 

V  ;  supplements  for  pigs  on,  198 ; 

winter,  166. 
Rations,  amount  to  feed  pregnant 

sows  and  gilts  in  winter,  58,  61 ; 

amount  to  feed  nursing  sows,  83  ; 


comparison  of,  for  pregnant  sows 
in  winter,  48 ;  for  mature  preg- 
nant sows  in  winter,  56  ;  for  pigs 
on  forage,  208 ;  for  nursing  sows, 
82 ;  for  sows  during  breeding 
season,  1 1 ;  relation  of,  to  rate  of 
gain  and  time  of  marketing,  218. 

Receipts,  daily  distribution  of,  on 
market,  382  ;  on  Chicago  market, 
377. 

Records,  herd,  90;  importance  of, 
during  mating  season,  28 ;  far- 
rowing, 71 ;  sample,  29. 

Red-dog  flour,  composition  of,  271. 

Relation,  of  quarantine  laws  to 
disease,  462-463  ;  of  sanitation  to 
disease,  458-462. 

Reproduction,  the  process  of,  431. 

Reversion,  in  color,  Plate  XII ; 
illustration  of  principle  of,  437 ; 
meaning  of,  436. 

Rice  bran,  effect  on  quality  of  pork, 
315  ;  and  rice  polish  vs.  corn  chop, 
313  ;  vs.  peanuts  and  corn,  314. 

Rice  products,  312. 

Richards,  191. 

Ringing  pigs,  223. 

Robertson,  322. 

Robison,  247. 

Rommel,  318,  342. 

Roots,  value  of,  for  fattening  swine, 
321,  322. 

Roughs,  374. 

Rye,  composition  of,  280 ;  charac- 
teristics of,  as  a  forage  crop,  170 ; 
green  vs.  ripe,  173 ;  ground  vs. 
ground  corn,  292  ;  hogging-down 
ripe,  172,  174;  vs.  wheat,  293; 
supplements  to  corn  for  pigs  on 
winter,  202 ;  as  a  winter  forage 
crop,  171 ;  winter,  vs.  dry-lot 
feeding,  172. 


Salt,  Epsom,  for  sows  at  farrowing 
time,  75  ;  for  pregnant  sows,  54 ; 
for  nursing  sows,  82. 

Sanborn,  322. 

Sanitation,  breeding  herd  in  winter, 


490 


Index 


36 ;  during  the  summer,  223  ; 
at  farrowing  time,  76. 

Score-card,  for  bacon  hogs,  403 ; 
for  brood  sows,  407 ;  for  market 
hogs  of  lard  type,  396 ;  use  of, 
in  judging,  395. 

Scours  in  pigs,  or  diarrhoea,  85, 467- 
468. 

Screenings,  composition  of,  271. 

Selection,  principles  in,  449. 

Self-feeder,  334  ;  pigs  on,  Plate  VII ; 
for  pigs  before  weaning,  84;  for 
pregnant  sows,  63. 

Self-feeding  vs.  hand-feeding,  348. 

Selling  hogs,  366. 

Sex  characteristics  in  brood  sows, 
414. 

Shade  and  water,  224. 

Shaw,  322. 

Shipping  hogs,  363 ;  cars  for,  364. 

Shorts,  composition  of,  271 ;  money 
value  of,  273  ;  money  value  of, 
compared  with  skim-milk  or 
buttermilk,  275 ;  as  a  supple- 
ment to  corn  and  tankage,  261. 

Shorts,  or  middlings,  vs.  linseed-oil 
meal,  267  ;  vs.  tankage,  259,  260 ; 
vs.  skim-milk  or  buttermilk,  274. 

Silage  for  pregnant  sows,  48. 

Simple  inflammation  of  the  mouth, 
463-464. 

Sire  and  dam,  relative  influence  of, 
440. 

Skim-milk,  or  buttermilk,  and  corn- 
meal  required  for  100  Ib.  gain, 
243  ;  on  pasture  vs.  skim-milk  in 
dry-lot,  146  ;  as  a  supplement  to 
corn,  241 ;  money  value  of,  242  ; 
money  value  of,  compared  with 
tankage,  249 ;  vs.  other  protein 
supplements,  246 ;  vs.  tankage, 
248 ;  proportions  of,  with  corn, 
247 ;  tubercular,  253. 

Skinner,  317,  383;  and  Cochel, 
245  ;  and  King,  301 ;  and  Smith, 
213 ;  and  Starr,  302,  305. 

Smith,  H.  R.,  253,  287,  288,  291. 

Smith,  W.  W.,  436. 

Snyder,  45,  46,  48,  105,  346;  and 
Burnett,  201,  285,  288,  289,  298. 


Sore  mouth  or  stomatitis,  463-466. 

Sorghum,  characteristics  of,  as  a 
forage,  177  ;  composition  of,  280 : 
for  fattening  pigs,  297 ;  results 
from  pasturing,  178 ;  vs.  sorghum 
and  corn,  298. 

Sows,  amount  to  feed  during  breed- 
ing season,  13  ;  birth  weight  of, 
108 ;  breed-type,  characteristics 
of,  415 ;  care  of,  during  farrow- 
ing season,  69  ;  care  and  feeding 
just  before  farrowing,  71 ;  condi- 
tion of  brood,  413  ;  condition  of, 
in  summer,  120 ;  cost  of  summer 
feeding  of  open  and  bred,  125, 
126,  127  ;  culling  out  unproduc- 
tive, 89  ;  effect  of  age  of,  on  birth 
weight  of  pigs,  110 ;  effect  of  age 
of,  on  size  of  litter,  108,  109; 
feed  consumption  of,  and  litters, 
94 ;  feed  cost  of  wintering  preg- 
nant, 65  ;  feeding  after  farrowing, 
74  ;  feeding  during  the  breeding 
season,  8  ;  feeding  pregnant,  39  ; 
feeding  and  management  of 
pregnant,  during  summer,  119; 
feeding  and  management  of 
open,  123  ;  feeding  for  milk  pro- 
duction, 81 ;  feeding  open  year- 
ling, 124;  feet  and  legs  of,  412; 
"flushing,"  11  ;  general  points 
in  judging,  409  ;  market  value  of 
old,  8  ;  form  of  brood,  410 ;  pig- 
eating,  75  ;  and  pigs  on  alfalfa, 
Plate  V ;  range  for  pregnant, 
Plate  II ;  sex  characteristics 
and  disposition  of,  414 ;  size  of 
brood,  409 ;  quality  of,  413. 

Soybeans,  characteristics  of,  as  a 
forage  crop,  178 ;  limited  vs.  full 
feeding  on,  180 ;  vs.  linseed-oil 
meal,  269;  vs.  rape,  181 ;  results 
from,  forage,  182 ;  vs.  tankage, 
262. 

Sperms  (spermatozoa),  432. 

"Sports,"  see  Reversion. 

Spotted  Poland-China  sow,  Plate 
XI ;  history  and  characteristics 
of,  427. 

Stags,  374. 


Index 


491 


Standard  middlings,  composition 
of,  271. 

Sterility,  effect  of  excessive  fatness 
on,  101. 

Stock  foods,  condimental,  327; 
constituents  of,  327;  effect  of, 
on  digestion,  331 ;  medicinal 
properties  of,  329;  value  of,  for 
fattening  pigs,  328. 

Stomatitis  or  sore  mouth,  463- 
466. 

Succulence,  for  sow  and  litter,  82 ; 
value  of,  for  pregnant  sows,  53. 

Supplements,  amount  of,  for  pigs 
on  alfalfa,  200;  for  bred  sows, 
52  ;  for  pigs  on  rape,  198 ;  for 
pigs  on  timothy  and  blue-grass, 
203  ;  for  pigs  on  winter  rye,  202  ; 
proportion  of,  for  pigs  on  for- 
age, 207. 

Supply,  monthly  variations  of,  377 ; 
and  price  fluctuations,  376 ;  va- 
riations in  daily,  381 ;  variations 
in  yearly,  382 ;  weight  as  a  fac- 
tor of,  384. 

Sweet,  330. 

Swine,  number  of,  in  leading  coun- 
tries, 6  ;  world's  distribution  of, 
2. 


Tamworth,  history  and  charac- 
teristics of,  429 ;  sow,  Plate  XI. 

Tankage,  composition  of,  255  ;  and 
corn  vs.  corn  alone,  256 ;  vs. 
linseed-oil  meal,  258;  money 
value  of,  compared  with  linseed- 
oil  meal,  259 ;  money  value  of, 
compared  with  shorts  or  mid- 
dlings, 260  ;  money  value  of, 
when  fed  with  corn,  257  ;  money 
value  of,  compared  with  soybeans, 
263  ;  money  value  of,  compared 
with  skim-milk  or  buttermilk, 
249  ;  best  proportion  of,  for  pigs 
on  rape,  199  ;  best  proportion  of, 
for  pigs  on  timothy  and  blue- 
grass,  204 ;  best  proportion  of, 
for  pigs  on  oats,  Canada  field 
peas,  and  rape,  206 ;  vs.  skim- 


milk  or  buttermilk,  248;  vs. 
wheat  shorts  or  middlings,  259. 

Three  gilts,  litter  mates,  Plate  III. 

Time  required  to  hog-off  an  acre 
of  corn,  237. 

Timothy  vs.  dry-lot  feeding,  177. 

Timothy  and  blue-grass,  supple- 
ments for  pigs  on,  203. 

Trucks,  shipping  hogs  by  motor, 
368. 

Tuberculosis,  481-482  ;  from  skim- 
milk,  253. 

Tubers  for  fattening  swine,  321. 

Type,  breed,  in  judging,  415  ;  rela- 
tion of,  to  size  of  litter,  104  ;  lard, 
392  ;  bacon,  392  ;  and  weight  of 
pig  desired  by  market,  128. 

Types  of  hogs,  392. 


U 

Ulcerative  inflammation  of  mouth, 
464-466. 

Up-grading,  441 ;  rate  of  improve- 
ment in,  442. 


Vaccination,  cost  of,  352. 

Variation,  due  to  environment,  439 ; 
germinal  or  hereditary,  434 ;  a 
phenomenon  of  heredity,  434. 

Velvet  beans,  as  a  forage  crop,  185 ; 
vs.  cowpea  forage,  187. 

Vetch,  as  a  forage  crop,  168. 

W 

Warrington,  151. 

Water,  for  breeding  herd  in  winter, 
37 ;  proportions  of  in  slop,  342  ; 
and  shade  for  pigs  in  summer, 
224. 

Weaver,  198,  261,  286,  287,  290, 
346. 

Weight,  desirable  variations  in,  of 
pregnant  sows,  60;  ideal,  for 
market  pig,  398 ;  as  a  factor  in 
supply  of  hogs,  384 ;  average 
monthly  variations  in,  384 ;  aver- 


492 


Index 


age  annual  variations  in,  385 ;  re- 
lation of,  to  dressing  per  cent, 
398 ;  and  type  of  pig  desired  by 
market,  128. 

Wheat,  alone  vs.  wheat  and  a  pro- 
tein supplement,  290 ;  composi- 
tion of,  280;  vs.  corn  for  fatten- 
ing pigs,  285 ;  dry  whole,  vs. 
soaked,  288;  frosted  vs.  sound, 
290 ;  ground  vs.  ground  corn,  286 ; 
soaked  vs.  ground,  289 ;  soaked 
whole  vs.  soaked  ground,  289 ; 
whole  vs.  shelled  corn,  286; 
vs.  one-half  wheat  and  one-half 
corn,  287. 

Wheat  flour,  by-products  from  the 


manufacture  of,  270;  composi- 
tion of,  by-products,  271. 

Wheeler,  296,  317. 

Whey,  composition  of,  250;  and 
corn-meal  vs.  meal  alone,  250. 

Williams,  383. 

Wilson,  245,  299. 

Wilson  and  Co.,  370. 

Wiltshire  side,  demand  for,  401 ; 
Plate  VIII. 

Wright,  201,  261,  297. 


Yorkshire,  history  and  characteris- 
tics of,  breed,  429 ;  sow,  Plate  XI. 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America. 


OVERDUE. 


3(8796s) 


YB   16184 


553066 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


